Psychology, as an academic and applied discipline, seeks to understand the complexities of the human mind and behavior. Defined broadly, it is the scientific study of mental functions and behaviors, encompassing a diverse range of topics such as cognition, emotion, perception, and social interactions. The origins of psychology trace back to ancient civilizations, but it formally emerged as a scientific discipline in the late 19th century. Wilhelm Wundt, often regarded as the “father of psychology,” established the first psychological laboratory in 1879, laying the groundwork for the field’s scientific approach.
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The evolution of psychology as a discipline has been significantly influenced by several key figures. Sigmund Freud, a neurologist, introduced psychoanalysis, emphasizing the influence of the unconscious mind on behavior. His theories on dream interpretation, defense mechanisms, and the structure of personality have profoundly shaped psychological thought, albeit with varying degrees of acceptance and criticism. Carl Jung, initially a follower of Freud, diverged to develop analytical psychology, introducing concepts like archetypes and the collective unconscious.
Behaviorism, another pivotal school of thought, was pioneered by figures such as John B. Watson and B.F. Skinner. Watson’s focus on observable behavior and Skinner’s research on operant conditioning shifted psychology’s trajectory towards empirical research and experimentation. Skinner’s work on reinforcement and punishment has been instrumental in educational and therapeutic practices.
Over the years, psychology has branched into various subfields, including clinical psychology, cognitive psychology, developmental psychology, and social psychology, among others. Each subfield employs unique methodologies and theoretical frameworks to explore different dimensions of human experience. The multidisciplinary nature of psychology underscores its critical importance in addressing complex human challenges, from mental health issues to enhancing educational outcomes and fostering positive workplace environments.
Branches of Psychology
Psychology, a multifaceted discipline, comprises various branches each focused on distinct aspects of human behavior and mental processes. These branches serve diverse purposes and contribute uniquely to our understanding of the mind and behavior. Here, we explore some key branches, including clinical, cognitive, developmental, social, and industrial-organizational psychology.
Clinical Psychology primarily aims to assess, diagnose, and treat mental illnesses and psychological disorders. Clinical psychologists employ various therapeutic techniques to help individuals navigate emotional, behavioral, and psychological challenges. Practical applications include treating depression, anxiety disorders, and substance abuse, ultimately improving mental health outcomes for individuals and communities.
Cognitive Psychology delves into mental processes such as perception, memory, reasoning, and decision-making. Cognitive psychologists study how people understand, diagnose, and solve problems, often employing experimental methods to explore these processes. Real-world applications range from enhancing educational techniques to developing computer interfaces that align with human cognitive capabilities.
Developmental Psychology focuses on the growth and changes that occur across the lifespan, from infancy to adulthood. This branch examines how genetic and environmental factors shape developmental pathways, offering insights into cognitive, emotional, and social growth. For instance, developmental psychologists might develop programs supporting childhood education, or devise interventions for age-related cognitive decline.
Social Psychology investigates how individuals’ thoughts, feelings, and behaviors are influenced by the presence of others. This branch explores topics like group dynamics, social perception, and interpersonal relationships. Applications of social psychology include enhancing teamwork in organizations, improving communication strategies in public health campaigns, and understanding societal issues like prejudice and aggression.
Industrial-Organizational (I/O) Psychology applies psychological principles to workplace environments. I/O psychologists study employee behavior, motivation, and productivity, aiming to optimize performance and well-being. Examples include designing training programs, improving job satisfaction, and developing recruitment and selection processes to fit organizational needs.
Each branch of psychology contributes to a comprehensive understanding of human behavior. By addressing distinct yet interrelated aspects, these fields underscore the vital role psychology plays in various real-world contexts, enhancing individual and collective well-being.
Role of Psychology in Mental Health
Psychology plays an integral role in the understanding, assessment, and treatment of mental health disorders. These disorders, which include conditions like anxiety, depression, schizophrenia, and bipolar disorder, can profoundly impact an individual’s quality of life. Through psychological research and practice, professionals are equipped to recognize early signs of distress, provide accurate diagnoses, and develop tailored treatment plans that encompass both therapy and counseling.
Mental health conditions such as anxiety and depression are prevalent in today’s society, affecting millions worldwide. Anxiety disorders, characterized by excessive fear and worry, and depression, manifested through persistent sadness and loss of interest, can derail daily functioning if left untreated. Psychological assessments, including standardized tests and clinical interviews, are vital tools in identifying these conditions. Once diagnosed, various therapeutic approaches, like cognitive-behavioral therapy (CBT), are utilized to help individuals manage their symptoms and improve their mental well-being.
More complex mental health disorders, such as schizophrenia and bipolar disorder, require comprehensive psychological intervention. Schizophrenia, marked by hallucinations, delusions, and cognitive disruptions, necessitates a multifaceted treatment approach. This often involves medication in combination with psychotherapy to help patients understand and manage their condition. Similarly, bipolar disorder, characterized by extreme mood swings between mania and depression, benefits from integrated care plans that include mood-stabilizing medications and behavioral therapy.
The role of psychology extends to real-life scenarios where case studies show the transformative power of psychological intervention. For instance, a patient with severe social anxiety might, through regular cognitive-behavioral sessions, learn strategies to reduce anxiety in social settings, leading to improved interpersonal relationships and enhanced life satisfaction. Another example is a person with bipolar disorder achieving mood stability through a combination of medication and psychotherapy, ultimately enabling them to lead a productive life.
Ultimately, psychology’s contribution to mental health is invaluable. By offering evidence-based treatment methodologies and continuous support, psychology assists individuals in managing their mental health conditions, fostering resilience, and enhancing their overall quality of life.
Psychology in Everyday Life
Understanding the implications of psychology in everyday life can significantly enhance the quality of our living experiences. The principles of psychology are not confined to the clinical environment but extend into the realms of decision-making, stress management, personal relationships, and productivity. These psychological insights provide practical techniques that individuals can apply to navigate their daily challenges more effectively.
Decision-making, for instance, is an area where psychological principles play a vital role. Cognitive psychology investigates how information is processed and decisions are made. By understanding cognitive biases, such as the confirmation bias or availability heuristic, individuals can make more informed and balanced choices. Methods like decision trees and pros-and-cons lists, rooted in psychological research, can also aid in making more structured and rational decisions.
Stress management is another domain where psychology’s contributions are indispensable. Psychological research has identified various strategies to cope with stress, including mindfulness, deep-breathing exercises, and cognitive-behavioral techniques. These methods help in recognizing stress triggers and developing coping mechanisms that reduce anxiety and improve emotional well-being. Incorporating these strategies into daily routines can lead to a more balanced and less stressful lifestyle.
The role of psychology in personal relationships is equally significant. Social psychology explores how people interact and the impact of these interactions on their mental health and well-being. Understanding concepts such as empathy, active listening, and non-verbal communication can lead to more meaningful and supportive relationships. Techniques like reflective listening and assertive communication, backed by psychological studies, can enhance interpersonal connections and resolve conflicts amicably.
Productivity can also be boosted through psychological insights. Organizational psychology, which examines workplace behavior, provides tools to enhance productivity through better time management and motivation techniques. The application of goal-setting theories and the Pomodoro Technique, for example, helps in maintaining focus and achieving high efficiency. By leveraging these psychological strategies, individuals can optimize their productivity and accomplish their tasks more efficiently.
Incorporating these psychological principles into daily life can lead to improved decision-making, reduced stress, stronger personal relationships, and increased productivity. By understanding and applying these insights, individuals can enhance various aspects of their lives, promoting overall well-being and life satisfaction.
The Impact of Technology on Psychology
Advancements in technology are significantly influencing the field of psychology, changing how professionals deliver services and how individuals engage with their mental health. One of the most notable developments is the rise of online therapy, also known as teletherapy or e-therapy. This form of psychological support provides individuals with access to licensed therapists through video calls, chats, or emails, thereby increasing the availability of mental health services. Especially in rural or underserved areas, online therapy has proven to be a vital resource, allowing people to receive help without the need for travel.
Mental health apps are another technological innovation transforming psychology. These mobile applications offer a range of features designed to support mental well-being, from mood tracking and meditation guides to cognitive behavioral therapy exercises. Some apps are customizable and provide personalized feedback based on user input, potentially helping to prevent escalation of mental health issues by promoting proactive management.
Social media platforms also play a pivotal role in mental health. They offer new avenues for individuals to share their experiences and seek support. However, they are a double-edged sword. While they can foster a sense of community and reduce feelings of isolation, they can also contribute to mental health challenges such as anxiety, depression, or body image issues. The constant exposure to curated lives and the pressure to maintain a certain image can be detrimental.
Despite these advancements, there are potential downsides to consider. The lack of face-to-face interaction in online therapy may limit the depth of the therapist-client connection. The data privacy and security concerns associated with mental health apps cannot be overlooked, and the tendency of social media to perpetuate negative behavior and misinformation requires careful monitoring.
Looking ahead, technology’s trajectory suggests increasing integration with the field of psychology. Virtual reality environments for exposure therapy, AI-driven mental health assessments, and further improvements in teletherapy platforms are likely future trends. While the impact of technology on psychology is complex, its potential to enhance mental health care and accessibility is undeniable.
Psychology in the Workplace
Psychological principles play a significant role in shaping the dynamics of organizational settings, profoundly impacting employee satisfaction and overall workplace culture. The application of these principles extends to various facets such as leadership styles, team dynamics, and conflict resolution, each contributing to the efficacy and harmony within an organization.
Effective leadership is often rooted in an understanding of psychological principles. Leaders who exhibit emotional intelligence, for instance, are better equipped to empathize with employees, fostering a supportive work environment. Transformational leadership, which motivates and inspires employees, is another widely studied psychological concept that has been linked to higher levels of job satisfaction and productivity. By leveraging insights from psychology, leaders can cultivate a positive organizational culture that values and enhances employee well-being.
Team dynamics represent another critical area where psychological insights are invaluable. Theories such as Tuckman’s stages of group development highlight the importance of understanding how teams form, interact, and perform. By applying these theories, managers can facilitate more effective teamwork and collaboration, ensuring that team members are aligned and working towards common goals. Additionally, understanding individual personality traits and interpersonal dynamics can help in assembling diverse teams that balance various strengths and perspectives.
Conflict resolution is another domain where psychology proves essential. Conflicts are inevitable in any workplace, yet their resolution often depends on the psychological acumen of the parties involved. Techniques such as active listening, mediation, and negotiation are grounded in psychological principles and can significantly reduce workplace tensions. Employing these methods promotes a more cooperative and less adversarial work environment.
Empirical evidence supports these applications of psychology in the workplace. Research consistently shows that organizations prioritizing employee well-being through evidence-based practices experience enhanced performance and reduced turnover. Case studies from companies with strong organizational cultures indicate improvements in employee satisfaction, thereby validating the importance of psychological principles in creating a thriving workplace.
Educational Psychology and Learning
Educational psychology plays a pivotal role in the modern educational system. By intertwining psychological principles with educational practices, this field seeks to enhance learning experiences and outcomes for students of all ages. One fundamental aspect of educational psychology revolves around developmental psychology, which examines how students evolve cognitively, emotionally, and socially. Understanding these developmental stages aids educators in crafting curriculums and interventions that are developmentally appropriate and effective.
Cognitive learning theories are another cornerstone of educational psychology. These theories, such as Piaget’s stages of cognitive development and Vygotsky’s social constructivism, provide invaluable insights into how students process information and construct knowledge. By applying these theories, teachers can design instructional strategies that align with students’ cognitive processes, thereby facilitating deeper understanding and retention of material.
The importance of mental health within educational settings cannot be overstated. Psychological well-being is integral to academic success and overall development. Schools are increasingly recognizing this by integrating mental health support services and fostering environments that promote emotional and psychological well-being. Recognizing signs of mental health issues and providing timely interventions can significantly impact students’ academic performance and personal growth.
Effective teaching strategies are essential for addressing the diverse needs of students. Differentiated instruction, for instance, tailors teaching methods to accommodate varying learning styles and abilities. This approach ensures that all students can access the curriculum and achieve their full potential. Furthermore, incorporating psychoeducational interventions for students with learning disabilities is crucial. With the right support, including individualized education plans (IEPs) and specialized instructional techniques, students with learning disabilities can overcome barriers and succeed academically.
In summary, educational psychology serves as a bridge that connects psychological knowledge with educational practice. By understanding developmental stages, leveraging cognitive learning theories, prioritizing mental health, and employing effective interventions, educators can create enriching and supportive learning environments. This holistic approach is key to fostering academic achievement and emotional well-being in students.
The Future of Psychology
The future of psychology holds promising advancements and transformative potential for both the field and society at large. Emerging research areas are expanding our understanding of cognitive and emotional processes, with particular emphasis on the integration of neuroscience. This interdisciplinary approach is likely to unveil deeper insights into human behavior and mental health, promoting more effective and personalized treatments.
One of the most notable trends in psychology concerns the development of innovative therapeutic methods. With advances in technology and data analytics, treatments are moving towards greater precision and individualization. Evidence-based practices are being fine-tuned to specific patient needs, facilitated by cutting-edge tools such as neuroimaging and genetic testing. These developments are expected to enhance the efficacy of psychological interventions, leading to improved outcomes and reduced relapse rates.
Moreover, the field is placing increasing importance on mental health awareness. As society becomes more attuned to the significance of mental well-being, psychologists are playing a crucial role in destigmatizing mental health issues and promoting proactive mental health care. Initiatives in education, workplace environments, and broader public health strategies are raising awareness and accessibility to mental health resources, making it clear that mental health is a critical component of overall health.
Looking ahead, experts predict that psychological research will delve further into the subtleties of the human mind, uncovering novel pathways for intervention. The merging of artificial intelligence with psychological research may offer new methods for diagnosing and treating mental health conditions, providing real-time support and monitoring. Such integration could revolutionize the mental healthcare landscape, making assistance more readily available and tailored to individual needs.
Hence, the continuous evolution of psychology is poised to make significant contributions to individual well-being and societal progress. By staying at the forefront of research and technology, psychology will continue to shape our understanding and management of mental health, fostering a healthier and more informed society.
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General Psychology
Exclusively Published for Philmont Academic Solutions, Inc. G/F Paragon Plaza, EDSA cor. Reliance St. Mandaluyong, Philippines
Originally published by
STERLING PUBLISHERS PRIVATE LIMITED A-59 Okhla Industrial Area, Phase-II, New Delhi-110020. E-mail: mail @sterlingpublishers.com www.sterlingpublishers.com
General Psychology
© 2010, S.K. Mangal
ISBN 978 81 207 5221 4
Philippine First Edition 2010
********
CONTENTS
1. PSYCHOLOGY MEANING, NATURE AND SCOPE
Introduction
Defining Psychology:
conclusion regarding definitions;
Meaning of the term behaviour;
Nature of the Subject Psychology;
Scope of Psychology;
Branches and Fields of Psychology;
Utility of Psychology;
Summary
2. DEVELOPMENT OF – PSYCHOLOGY—A HISTORICAL PERSPECTIVE
Introduction;
The Early: age of Pre-Scientific Psychology;
The Modern Age of Scientific Psychology Structuralism,
Functionalism.
Behaviourism ;
Gestalt Psychology; Psychoanalysis;
The recent trends in Contemporary: Psychology—Humanist Psychology,
Transpersonal Psychology, Cognitive Psycholosy;
Summary,
References and Suggested Readings.
3. METHODS OF PSYCHOLOGY
Introduction;
Introspection method;
Naturalistic observation;
Experimental method;
Differential method;
Clinical method: Psychophysical methods—The method of minimal changes or the methods of limits; The method of constant Stimuli or the method of right and wrong cases; The method of average error; Conclusion regarding methods; Summary; References and Suggested Readings.
4. PHYSIOLOGICAL BASIS OF BEHAVIOUR
Introduction; Nervous system; The neuron; The neural Impulse; The central nervous system: The brain, Localization of the brain functions, Spinal-cord; The peripheral nervous system; The influence of nervous System on human behaviour, The endocrine system Impact of the functioning of endocrine glands; Summary; References and Suggested Readings.
5. HEREDITY AND ENVIRONMENT
Introduction; What is heredity? The role of genes; Determination of sex—boy or girl? The twins mechanism; What is environment ? The role of heredity and environment in the development of personality and behaviour; Summary; References and Suggested Readings.
6. INSTINCTS AND EMOTIONS
Introduction; Understanding and defining instincts; Instincts and Reflex actions; Classification of instincts; Defining emotion; Characteristics of emotions; Kinds of emotions; The identification and measurement of emotions—Introspective reports; Observation of facial expressions ; Measurement in terms of physiological changes; Physiology of emotions; Theories of emotiom—The James-Lange theory, The Cannon-Bard theory, Cognitive theory, Activation theory: Conclusion about theories; Summary; References and Suggested Readings.
7. SENSES AND SENSITIVITY
Introduction; Meaning and types of Senses; Sensation and Sensitivity; The detection and discrimination of stimuli; Absolute threshold; The method of constant stimuli; The method of forced choice; Difference threshold and Weber’s law, Sense of vision; structure and functioning of the eye; Visual adaptation; Colour vision, colour mixture; colour blindness; Theories of colour vision-—Young Helmholtz theory; Hering’s opponent process theory; The Sense of hearing—The characteristics of sound, the structure and functioning of the ear; Theories of hearing—the place theory; The frequency theory the volley theory; The chemical senses —senses of smell; Sense of taste; The skin senses; Sense of touch or pressure; Sense; of temperature; Sense of pain; The body senses—The Kinesthetic sense; The vestibular Sense; Summary References and Suggested Readings.
8. PERCEPTION AND ILLUSION
Introduction; Meaning of perception; Laws of perceptual organisation;, Perceptual constancy; Perception of space—Visual monocular cues; Binocular cues; Perception of distance; Perception of direction; Perceptual illusions; Summary; References and Suggested Readings.
9. THINKING, REASONING AND PROBLEM SOLVING
Introduction; Define thinking; Nature of thinking; Elements of thoughts —tools of thinking; Role of Rigidity; Set; direction and interest in thinking; Types of thinking; Reasoning—meaning and detintion; types of reasoning; Problem Solving—meaning and definition, Scientific method of problem-solving, Summary, References and Suggested Readings.
10. MOTIVATION OF BEHAVIOUR
What is motivation, NeedsBiological needs; Sociopsychological needs; Drives; Drives and incentives; Motives; Hunger motive; Thirst motive; Sex motive; Maternal motive; Aggression motive; Application motive; Achievement motive; Theories of motivationFreud’s instinctive theory; Adler’s social urges theory, Goal oriented theory, Maslow’s Self-actualization theory; Measurement of motives; Summary; References and Suggested Readings.
11. ATTENTION
Meaning; Signs and Effects of Attention; Types of attention; Factors or determinants of attention; Span of attention; Shifting or fluctuation of attention, Division of attention; Sustained attention; Distraction, Summary; References and Suggested Readings. ;
12. LEARNING
Meaning and Nature; Types of learning; Verbal learning; Motor learning: Concept learning; Problem-solving; Serial learning; Paired associzte learning, Theories of learning —Trial and error theory of learning; Laws of learning—Practical implications of Thorndike’s contributions; Theory of classical conditioning; Principies of classical conditioning, [miplications of classical conditioning; Operant conditioning; Shaping; Implications of the theory of Operant conditioning; Theory of insightful learning, Implications of theory of insightful learning; Transfer of training or learning-meaning; Tynes of transfer; Theories of transfer; Summary; References and Suggested Readings.
13. MEMORY-REMEMBERING AND FORGETTING
What is memory ? Mechanism of the process of memorization; Remembering and memory: Types of memory—Immediate memory; Short term memory; Longcerm memory; The study of memory; Learning method; Saving method; Economy in memorizing—Recitation method, Whole and part methods; Methods of distributed and massed practice; Training in memory; What is forgetting; Ebbinghaus’s curve of Forgetting, Types of forgetting; Theories of forgetting —The trace decay theory; The interference theory; The repression theory; Summary; References and Suggested Readings.
14. INTELLIGENCE
Introduction; Defining intelligence; Theories of intelli genceUnitary theory, Multifactor theory; Two factor theory; Group factor theory; Vernon’s hierarchical theory; Guilford’s model of intellect; Conclusion about theories of intelligence; Nature of intelligence; Effect of heredity and environment on intelligence; Distribution of intelligence; Individual differences in intelligence; Intelligence and changes in age; Intelligence and sex differences; Intelligence and racial or cultural differences; Assessment of intelligence; Individual verbal tests; Individual performance tests; Group verbal tests; Group Non-verbal tests; Concept of Mental age and I.Q.; The constancy of I.Q.; The Classification of I.Q.; Mentally retarded; Gifted; Summary; References and Suggested Readings.
15. APTITUDES
Meaning and nature of aptitudes; Aptitude-Ability and achievement; Intelligence and aptitudes ; Aptitude and interest; Measurement of aptitudes; Utility of aptitude; tests; Summary; References and Suggested Readings.
16. PERSONALITY
Meaning and Nature; Definitions: Distinguished features and characteristics of personality; Theories of personality, Type approachHippocrates Kretschmer; Sheldon; Jung; Trait approach — Allport; Cattell; Type-cum-trait approach—Eysenck’s theory; Developmental approach — Freud’s _ psychoanalytic theory; Adlers theory Carl Roger’s Self-theory; Dollard Miller’s Learning theory of personality; Bandura & Walters Social learning theory; Assessment of personality — Difficulties in the measurement of personality Observation, Situational tests; Questionnaire; Personality inventory, Rating scale Interview, Projective techniques—The Rorschach Ink-blot test; TAT; CAT; Word associatiun tests; Sentence-completion test; Summary: References and Suggested Readings.
PREFACE
This book bas been written for use as a basic text book in an introductory course in General Psychology or as a book of general and practical interest for those who venture to peep into the realm of a most useful and fast growing subject, Psychology. The students and people belonging to other fields and disciplines will also find the book informative as well as stimulating.
Indeed it is a difficult task to present all the basic essential aspects of – such a vast subject like Psychology into a limited number of chapters and pages of a brief text. However, an attempt is being made to present what is essential both from the angle of the scope of the subject as well as the
needs and demands of the under-graduate and post-graduate courses of Universities.
Throughout the text, I have tried to make the subject as readable and stimulating as possible. The terms and concepts have been adequately illustrated within their descriptions as well as through the Glossary at the end of the text. Each chapter has been provided with a compact and concise summary along with the relevant references and suggested readings. I express a deep sense of gratitude to the various Writers, the views and opinions of whom I have freely incorporated in this book. I am also grateful to my colleagues and my students who have been a source of constant inspiration to me. I also owe a debt of gratitude to my wife Dr. (Mrs.) Uma Mangal and dear Deepak Gupta who assisted me in the preparation of the manuscript and making the drawings of the illustrations and figures.
I hope that the book will prove its worth and be of benefit to all those for whom it has been specifically designed. Any suggestions for its improvement will be gratefully acknowledged and appreciated.
S.K. MANGAL Ist January, 2010
1. PSYCHOLOGY—MEANING, NATURE AND SCOPE
The subject Psychology is becoming more and more popular day by day. The number of colleges and students opting for the study of this subject, at the graduate and post-graduate levels, is yearly increasing in almost all the Universities of our country. The reason for this rapid progress is explained in detail in chapter two. Psychology is an offspring of the subject Philosophy. With the passage of time, the subject of psychology has undergone a change from one of sheer speculation to that of scientific procedure. The gradual divergence of this subject from Philosophy to Science has been responsible for the change in its meaning and concept from time to time as may be evident from the following discussion.
Defining Psychology
I. In terms of the study of the soul: In order to define the subject Psychology let us first trace its origin. It stems from the most mysterious and philosophical concept, the soul. Etymologically, the very word psychology means the study of the soul on account of its derivation from the two Greek words, psyche (Soul) and logos (a rational course or a Study).
2. In terms of the study of the mind: What is soul? How can it be Studied? The inability to answer such questions led some ancient Greek philosophers to define psychology as ‘‘study of the mind’”’. Although the word mind was less mysterious and vague than soul, it also faced the same questions such as: What is mind? How can it be studied” etc., and consequently this definition was also rejected.
3. In terms of the study of the Consciousness. Failure to define the terms soul and mind persuaded the philosophers and psychologists to search for some other suitable definitions.
William James in his book Principles of Psychology published in 1890 defined psychology as ‘the description and explanation of state of consciousness as such’’.
William Wundt (1832-1920) who established the first psychology laboratory at the University of Leipzig in Germany and his disciple Edward Bradford Titchener also concluded to define psychology as the science of consciousness. According to these psychologists, the description and explanation of the states of consciousness is the task of psychology which is usually done by the instrument introspection —process of looking within.
This definition was also rejected on the grounds that (i) it has a very narrow vision on account of its not talking about the subconscious and unconscious activities of the mind, (ii) the introspection method for the study of the conscious activities of the mind proved the most subjective and unscientific method, and (iii) it could not include the study of the consciousness of animals.
4. In terms of the study of behaviour: From the 19th century onwards, with the advent of the modern era of scientific investigation and thought, psychology began to be defined in terms of the study of “behaviour.
The first man to define psychology as the Science of behaviour ‘as an English psychologist, William McDougall. In his book Physiological Psychology published in 1905 he wrote ‘‘psychology may be best and most comprehensively defined as the positive Science of the conduct of living creatures’. Later on in 1908, in his book Introduction to Social Psychology he added the word behaviour to his definition and finally in his book An Outline of Psychology gave the following meaningful definition:
“Psychology is a Science which aims to give us better understanding and control of the behaviour of the organism as a whole.”’ (1949, p. 38).
In the same period, an American Professor Walter Bowers Pillsbury in his book Fssentials of Psychology published in 1911 gave the same behavioural definition of the term psychology in the words: “Psychology may be most satisfactorily defined as the Science of human behaviour.”’
However, in later years, in 1913, J.B. Watson, the father of the “Behaviourist School proposed to elaborate the concept of the term behaviour including in it both human and animal behaviour and consequently he defined psychology as ‘“‘the Science of behaviour’’ (taking into account the human as well as animal behaviour).
Taking cues from the earlier works, Contemporary psychologists and various other Writers have explained and defined psychology as Science of behaviour using a somewhat different vocabulary as follows:
N.L. Munn says “Psychology is a Science and the properly trained psychologist is a Scientist, or at Jeast a practitioner who uses scientific methods and information resulting from scientific investigation (1967, p. 4). Similarly, Desiderato, Howieson and Jackson write ‘‘Psychology can be broadly defined as the investigation of human and animal behaviour and of the mental and physiological processes associated with the behaviour’. (1976, p. 5).
Conclusion regarding definitions
The above account of the definitions regarding the subject psychofogy clearly reveals that the meaning and concept of this subject has frequently changed its shape based on its dependence upon philosophical or scientific thinking. Commenting over this aspect Woodworth (1948) says ‘‘First psychology lost its soul, then its mind, then it lost its consciousness. It still has behaviour of sort.”
Although even at this final stage there seems no agreement over universal definition of psychology, yet the definitions may generally be viewed to centre around a common pivot of behaviour. Consequently it may be concluded that psychology is a science of behaviour or scientific study of the behavioural activities and experiences. The questions which remain unanswered at this stage are:
(i) What do we actually mean by the term behaviour ?
(ii) What is the nature of the subject psychology? Is it a science? If yes, then what kind of science is it?
Meaning of the term behaviour
The term behaviour is taken in its totality connoting 4 wide and comprehensive meaning as detailed below:
(a) “Any manifestation of life is activity” says Woodworth (1948) and behaviour 1s a collective name for these activities. Therefore, the term behaviour includes all the motor or conative activities (like walking, swimming, dancing etc.), cognitive activities (like thinking, reasoning, imagining, etc) and affective activities (like feeling, happy, sad and angry, etc.).
(b) It includes not only the conscious behaviour and activities of the human mind but also the sub-conscious and unconscious. Conser quently it covers not only the overt behaviour but also the covert behaviour involving all the inner experiences and mental processes.
(c) It is not limited to the study of the human behaviour. The behaviour of the animals, insects, birds and even plants ts also covered in the subject psychology. Therefore, when we talk about the study of the behaviour in psychology, we mean to study the behaviour of all living organism in all walks of their life,
in a nutshell the term behaviour refers to the entire life activities and experiences of all the living organisms.
Nature of the subject psychology
{¢ is an accepted reality that the nature of the subject psychology is quite scientific. This fact has been properly recognized by the eminent psychologists and thinkers as may be inferred out of tho definitions of psychology (in terms of the scientific study or science of behaviour) given by them in the earlier pages of this chapter. However, let us try to demonstrate why the subject psychology should be called as a science. In general, we may call the nature of a subject scientific, if it fulfiis the following criteria:
(i) Possesses a body of facts and is able to support it through universal laws and principles.
(ii) Emphasizes on search for truth.
(iii) Does not believe in hearsay, stereotypes or superstitions. (iv) Believes in cause and effect relationships.
(v) Adopts the method of objective investigation, systematic and controlled observation and scientific approach.
(vi) Stards for the generalization, verifiability and modifications of the observed results or deduced phenomena.
(vii) Helps in predicting the future developments.
(viii) Is able to turn its theory into practice by having its applied aspect.
Let us summarize the nature of psychology in the light of the abovementioned criteria.
1. Psychology possesses a well organized theory which is supported by the relevant psychological laws and principles.
2. It has its applied aspects in the form of various branches of applied psychology like industrial, legal, clinical and educational psychology.
3. It believes that every behaviour has its roots, the factors of its causing, influencing or nurturing.
4, Subjective ideas and opinions have little weight in carrying out the study of behaviour in the subject psychology. It emphasizes on the search for truth by advocating objectivity, reliability and validity in the assessment of the behaviour.
5. The methods and techniques employed in the study of the behaviour in psychology are quite scientific. The steps like analysis of the behaviour, formulation of hypothesis, objective observations oF controlled experimentation, deduction, verification and géneralization of the results etc., provide the solid base for scientific method and approach in the subject psychology.
6. The results of the study of behaviour always stand for theif verification in similar other conditions by other experimenters and observers. These results may be accepted, modified or altered in thé light of the recently available data and findings.
7. The established facts, principles and laws of the behaviour if the subject psychology enjoy universal applicability in practical life, other bodies of the knowledge and future researches in its own fields
8. The appropriate description as well as quantification of behaviour is possible through the help of psychology. We may make trustworthy predictions about the organism in the light of the studied behaviour.
On the basis of thé above characteristics, it may be established beyond doubt that psychology is a science. Its nature is quite scientific and not philosophical or mysterious as was supposed to be in days of yore.
What kind of science is psychology?
We can divide all the Sciences into two broad categories Positive and Normative Sciences. While physical and life sciences are termed as positive sciences, the subjects like logic, philosophy and ethics are included in the category of natural sciences.
In contrast to normative sciences, positive sciences study facts, describe ‘what is’ and have least or no concern with ‘what ought to be’.
Psychology in this sense unquestionably falls in the category of positive Sciences.
What kind of positive science is psychology ?
The question here is, can we equate psychology, the science of behaviour with the positive sciences like Physics, Chemistry, Botany, Loology, Astronomy and Mathematics, etc.? The answer lies in the negative. “In comparison with these sciences, psychology is not so perfect and developed a science. In fact, it is a behavioural science which deals with the behaviour of an organism. This behaviour is quite dynamic and unpredictable. Methods of its studying are also not so absolute and objective as adopted by the natural sciences. On the other hand physical or chemical reactions studied by the natural sciences are always predictable on account of the nature of the material and study processes. As a result, the studies in natural sciences are bound to be more exact, accurate and objective than the studies of behaviour in psychology.
Consequently, it is not proper to equate psychology with the physical and natural sciences. Although psychology is striving hard in its technique and approach to be as objective, exact and accurate as possible, it has yet to attain the position and status of these sciences. Thus in its true sense, it can be categorised as a developing positive science rather than a developed one.
Hence, in the ultimate analysis for understanding the meaning and nature of the subject psychology, we can define it as a developing positive science of behaviour.
Scope of psychology
What do we mean by the scope of a subject? The scope of a subject can usually be discussed under the following two heads:
1. The limits of its operations and applications.
2. The branches, topics and the subject matter with which it deals.
The field of operation and applications of the subject psychology is too vast. It studies, describes and explains the behaviour of the living Organisms. Here the terms ‘behaviour’ and ‘living organisms’ carry unusual wide meanings. Behaviour is to be used to include all types of life activities and experiences—whether conative, cognitive or affective, implicit or explicit, conscious, unconscious or sub-conscious of a living organism. On the other hand, the term living organism 1s to be employed to all the living creatures created by the Almighty irrespective of their species, caste, colour, age, sex, mental or physical state. Fhus normals, abnormals, children, adolescents, youths, adults, old persons, criminals, patients, workers, officials, students, teachers, parents, consumers and producers belonging to different stock, spheres and walks of human life all are studied in the subject psychology. Moreover, the studies in psychology do not limit themselves to the study of human behaviour only but also try to encircle the behaviour of the animals, insects, birds and even plant life.
In this way, where there seems some life and we have living Organisms, psychology may be needed for the study of the activities and experiences of these living organisms. We know that the living organisms as well as their life activities are countless and consequently, no limit can be imposed upon the fields of the Operation and applications of the subject psychology.
Branches and fields of psychology
The subject matter of the subject psychology can be grouped into Gifferent branches tor the sake of convenience and specialized study. First, we divide it into two broad categories, namely, “Pure Psvchology and Applied Psychology.
Pure psychology provides the framework and theory. Its contents deal with the formulation of psychological principles and theories. It suggests various methods and techniques for the analysis, assessment, modification and improvement of behaviour.
In applied psychology, the theory generated or discussed through pure psychology finds its practical shape. Here we discuss ways and means of the applications of psychological rules. principles. theories and techniques with reference to the real practical life situations.
The abovementioned pure and applied aspects of the subject psychology can be further grouped into various branches. Let us first mention some of the branches of pure psychology.
A. BRANCHES OF PURE PSYCHOLOGY
I. General psychology: It is relatively a large area or field of psychology which deals with the fundamental rules, principles and theories of psychology in relation to the study of behaviour of normal adult human beings.
2. Abnormal psychology: It is that branch or ‘field of psychology which describes and explains the behaviour of abnormal people in relation to their own environment. The causes, symptoms and syndromes, description and treatment of the abnormalities of behaviour form the subject matter of this branch.
3. Social psychology: This branch of psychology deals with the group behaviour and inter-relationships of people with other people. Group dynamics, likes and dislikes, interests and attitudes, social distance and prejudices of the people in their personal and social relationships form the subject matter of this branch.
4. Experimental psychology: This branch of psychology describes and explains the ways and means of carrying out psychological experiments following scientific methods in controlled or laboratory Situations for the study of mental processes and behaviour. It picks up animals, birds and human beings as subjects for these experiments.
5. Physiological psychology: This branch of psychology describes and explains the biological and physiological basis of behaviour. The study of the internal environment and physiological structure of the body, particularly brain, nervous system and functioning of the glands in relation to the conative, cognitive and affective behaviour of the human being form part of the subject matter of this branch.
6. Para-psychology: Deals with extra sensory perceptions, cases of re-birth, telepathy and allied problems.
7, Geo-psychology: This branch or field of psychology describes and explains the relation of physical environment particularly weather, climate. soil and landscape with behaviour.
8. Development psychology: This branch of psychology describes and explains the processes and products of the process of growth and develooment in relation to the behaviour of an individual from birth to old age. For convenience, it 1s further sub-divided into branches or fields hke Child psychology, Adolescent psychology and Adult psychology.
B. BRANCHES OF APPLIED PSYCHOLOGY
I. Educational psychology. It is that branch of applied psychology which tries to apply the psychological principles. theories and techniques to human behaviour in educational situations. The subject matter of this branch covers psychological ways and means of improving all aspects of the teaching/learning process including the learner, learning process, learning material, learning environment and the teacher.
2. Clinical psychology: This branch of applied psychology describes and explains the causes of mental illness or abnormal behaviour of a patient attending the clinic or hospital and suggests individual or group therapy for the treatment and effective adjustment of the affected person in society.
3. Industrial psychology: This branch of applied psychology tries to seek application of the psychological principles, theories and techniques for the study of human behaviour in relation to industrial environment. It includes the topics or contents that are useful for improving the ways and means of knowing the taste and interests of the consumers, advertising and sale of products, selection training and placing of personnel, solving labour problems, establishing harmonious relationship between the emplcyee and employer, strengthening morals of the workers and increasing production etc.
4. Legal psychology: It is that branch of applied psychology which tries to study the behaviour of the persons like clients, criminals, witnesses etc; in their respective surroundings with the help of the application of psychological principles and techniques. It contains the subject matter for improving the ways and means of detection of crimes, false witnesses and other complex phenomena. The root causes of the crime, offence, dispute or any legal case can be properly understood through the use of this branch of psychology and subsequently proper reformatory and rehabilitation measures may be employed.
5. Military psychology: This branch of psychology is concerned with the use of psychological principles and techniques in the world of military science. How to keep the morale of the soldiers and citizens high during war time, how to fight war of propaganda and intelligence services, how to secure better recruitment of the personnel for the armed forces and how to improve the fighting capacities and organisational climate and leadership etc.. are the various topics that are dealt with in this branch of psychology.
6. Political psychology: This branch of psychology relates itself with the use of psychological principles and techniques in studying the politics and deriving political gains. The knowledge of the dynamics .of the group behaviour, judgment of the public opinion, qualities of the leadership, psychology of the propaganda and suggestions, the art of diplomacy, etc., are some of the key concepts that find place in the subject matter of the branch political psychology.
In the preceding pages, an attempt has been made to demarcate the limits and boundaries of the subject psychology by pointing out its fields of operations and applications as well as enlisting its branches or fields of psychology. However the account submitted is by no means complete. Psychology has surpassed all other branches of knowledge in its application to the fields of human endeavour in providing the maximum output with the least input.
Utility of psychology
1. In the field of Education: Psychology has contributed a great deal towards the improvement of the processes and products of education. [t has helped in the asscssment of natural abilities and acquired characteristics. Theories of learning, motivation and personality, etc. have been responsible for shaping and designing the educational systems according to the needs and requirements of the students. The application of psychology in the field of education has helped the learners to learn, teachers to teach, administrators to administer and educational planners to plan efficiently and effectively.
2. In the field of Medicine: Psychology has proved its worth in the field of medicine and cure. A doctor, nurse or any person who attends the patient needs to know the science of behaviour to achieve good results. Behaviour counts much more than the medicines and this behaviour can only be learnt through psychology. The belief that sickness whether physical or mental may be caused by psychological factors has necessitated the use of psychology. It has removed a lot of superstitions in the diagnosis as well as cure of mental and physical sickness. Psychology has contributed valuable therapeutic measures like behaviour therapy, play therapy, group therapy, shock therapy, psychoanalysis, etc., for the diagnosis and cure of patients suffering from psychosomatic as well as mental diseases.
3. In the field of Business and Industry: The use of psychology is increasing day by day in the field of business management and industry. Whether it may be in the field of salesmanship, manufacturing policy, or advertisement one has to study the psychology of the consumers by applying the psychological principles of needs, motivation, interest, suggestion and individual differences, etc. Psychological researches and their uses have yielded good results in all the ureas telated to business and industry. They have provided the most suitable ways for the selection, training and placement of the persons working in the world of business. It has increased working capacity and efficiency of both man and machine, helped in the establishment of harrconious relationship between the employer and employee, manufacturer and consumers resulting in the maximum economy and output.
4. In the field of Criminology: Detection of crimes and dealing with criminals have been greatly influenced by psychology. The old adage, tooth for a tooth and eye for an eye, holds no ground today in dealing with offenders and criminals. No criminal is such by nature but circumstances lead him to the maladaptive and criminal behaviour. He may be reformed, rehabilitated and made a useful organ of society if handled properly by making use of psychological knowledge and researches. The use of psychology has thus resulted in a change of attitude in the general public as well as civil and judicial authorities in dealing with so-called bad elements and criminals.
5. In the field of Politics: Politics and politicians have benefited much from the use of psychology. Psychology of group behaviour, group dynamics, social distance, propaganda and leadership etc., have provided various techniques for gaining popularity, leading masses and achieving political gains in terms of proving a successful politician, efficient administrator and providing a functionable government.
6. In the field of Guidance and Counselling: Knowledge of psychology helps in providing valuable guidance and counselling to persons seeking solutions to their problems of adjustment in the field of education, employment and personal life. A guidance personnel, counsellor, tries to assess all the essential aspects of the behaviour and potentiality of the person concerned through various psychological measures and techniques and then suggests as well as tries possible ways and means to solve his difficulties.
7. Inthe field of Military Science: Military Science also makes use of the principles and techniques of psychology. Psychology helps in the selection, traming, promotion and classification of defence personnel. Cold war diplomacy is maintained with the help of psychological propaganda, rumours and conversing. In fighting the enemy, the morale ot the defence personnel and of citizens must at all costs be high and us can only be achieved with the help of psychology of suggestion. sight and confidence. It is no exaggeration to say that today wars are fought, continued and won not only with men and material but tu a great extent through psychology.
8. In the field of Adjustment and Mental Health: Psychology helps: to adjust one’s self, with other people and things in the environment and thus paves the way for securing good mental health.
9. In the field of Human relationships and World peace: By trying to understand humun nature and the needs and interests of our fellowbeings with the help of psychology, one is able to maintain harmonious relationship with others. The maintenance of relationships and social adjustment, further helps in not only achieving national integration but also the objectives of world solidarity and international peace.
10. In the field of Self-development: Psychology helps the individual to know his assets and limitations, abilities and shortcomings, habits and temperament, etc. The understanding of oneself may lead one to set the level of his aspiration, change his habits, seek self-control and strive for his adequate development and progress. It may help im proper catharsis and training of emotions, building of proper sentiments and character, development of problem-solving and decisionmaking abilities, and self-actualization leading to a well balanced and integrated personality.
In this way, it can be visualized that psychology has a wide field of application and utility. There is no profession in the world where we do not have opportunities of utilising the principles and techniques ot psychology. Children or adults, normals or abnormals, males or females, rich or poor, educated or uneducated belonging to all castes, colours or creeds. knowingly or unknowingly, do make use of psychology and may derive more benefits through gaining proper training in this subject. There is no corner of ones life which cannot be illuminated or glorified with the help or knowledge of psychology. It helps the individual to grow and develop in its totality with complete resonance to his environment to achieve happiness and contribute towards social progress and development. Ina nutshell, where there is any living organism, environment and behavioural response, the need for study of the behaviour and the subject competent to perform this study will always be felt and where there is any craving or desire for self-improvement, adjustment, happiness and social progress, we will have to call for the available or otherwise discovered services of the subject psychology.
SUMMARY
Psychology is the legitimate child of his mother philosophy. However, with the passage of time its nature has undergone a change from sheer speculation to the scientific procedure. Defined first as the study of soul in its history of evolution, it has been known gradually as the study of mind, study of consciousness and finally study of behaviour. Today it is considered as the Science of behaviour (when ,behaviour is taken in its comprehensive meaning involving all types of behaviour of all living organisms).
Nature of psychology is quite scientific and not philosophical or mysterious as supposed to be considered in days gone by. Like sciences, it believes in cause and effect relationship, utilizes observation, experimentation and other scientitic methods for its study, possesses a universally accepted body of facts and believes in the modification and alterations in its principles through future researches and findings. However, it is not so perfect and developed a science as the other natural and physical sciences. In fact it is a developing behavioural science that is trying hard to become as much objective, exact and accurate as possible to be on a par with the developed sciences. Therefore, it is termed as a developing positive science (and not as a science) of behaviour.
Scope of psychology is too wide. It studies, describes and explains the behaviour of all the living organisms. Living organisms and their life activities are countless. Therefore no limit can be imposed upon the scope of the subject psychology. It has many branches and fields of studies. For convenience. it may broadly be divided as pure and applied psychology.
In pure psychology we generate theories and discuss principles which find their practical shape in applied psychology. Where in pure psychology we study the branches like general psychology, abnormal psychology, social psychology, experimental psychology. physiological psychology, para-psychology, geo-psychology, developmental psychology, Clinical psychology, industry psychology, legal psychology, military psychology, political psychology, etc., are ‘included in the broad field of applied psychology.
Psychology as a subject of studying, explaining and understanding of behaviour has proved quite useful in many walks of life. Its main contributions may be summarised as below:
It has contributed much to the improvement of the processes and products of education.
– It has high-lighted the importance of good behaviour to the patients, removed a lot of superstitions and provided valuable therapies in the field of medicines.
—It has high-lighted the importance of the knowledge of consumer’s psychology and harmonious inter-personal relationship in the field of commerce and Industry.
—It has helped in detection of crimes and dealing with criminals.
—It has proved useful to the politicians and leaders to learn the — qualities of leadership for leading the masses.
—It has provided valuable help in relation to Guidance and Counselling, educational, personal as well as vocational,
—It has contributed much to the field of military science for improving the resources and operations.
—Finally it has helped human beings to learn the art of understanding their own behaviour, seeking adjustment with their self and others and enhancing as well as actualizing their potentialities to the utmost possible.
References and Suggested Readings
Desiderato Otelis, Howieson D.B. & Jackson, J H.: Javestigating BehaviourPrinciples of Psychology, New York: Harper & Row, 1976, p. 5.
Guilford, J.B. (Ed.); Fields of Psychology, New York: Van Nostrand, 1966. James Ww; Principles of Psychology, (2 Vols) New York: Henry Holt & Co, 1890, James, W: Psychology (Briefer course’, New York: Collier, 1962.
Keller, F.S.: The Definitions of Psychology, New York: Appleton Century, 1937. McDougall, W; Psychology—the Study of Behaviour, New York: Henry Holt, 1912.
McDougall, W; An Outline of Psychology , London: Methuen (13th Ed.), 1949, p. 38.
Munn. N.L.; Introduction to Psychology, Delhi: Oxford & IBH, (Indian Ed.) 1967, p. 4.
Pilsbury, W.B.: Essentials of Psychology, New York: The Macmillan Co. 1911. Watson, J B.; Psychology as a Behaviourist Views It, Psyche. rev. 1913 Vol. 20.
Watson, J.B.. Psychology from the Standpoint of a Behaviourist, Philadelohia: J.B. Lippinc Otta Co. 1919.
Watson J.B.; Behaviorism, London: Kegan Paul, 1930. Woodworth, R.S.; Psychology, London: Methuen, 1945. Woodworth, R-S.; Contemporary Schools of Psychology, London: Methuen, 1948.
2
DEVELOPMENT OF PSYCHOLOGYA HISTORICAL PERSPECTIVE
Historical background of a subject not only presents a fascinating story of its gradual development but also throws light on different ideologies pointing out different meanings, concepts, approaches and objectives of the subject from time to time as advocated by the eminent scholars individually or collectively. The same is true with the subject psychology also. In the following pages an attempt ts made to have a glimpse at the history of the subject psychology under some. major heads as given below:
A. The Early age of pre-scientific psychology.
B. The Modern age of Scientific psychology.
C. The Recent trends in contemporary psychology,
A. THE EARLY AGE OF PRE-SCIENTIFIC PSYCHOLOGY
How we behave and why we behave so, are questions that have aroused curiosity from time immemorial. In the earliest period of the history of psychology, they were answered quite unscientifically merely on the basis of superstitions and speculations as follows:
1. It was believed that a person’s behaviour was the result of his fate which was bound to be influenced by the movements of the planets. In case we knew the position of planets at any particular moment, we could tell and predict the behaviour of the person by evaluating his horoscope. Besides the role of planets, demons, spirits, ghosts and other supernatural forces were also held responsible for varying human actions. In this way, the cause and forms of human behaviour were being located in something outside the human being.
2. The Greek philosophers are credited to look inside the human beings for clues to behaviour. Socrates believed that inquiry into the nature of the cosmos is futile. As a result he tried to adopt a questionanswer method for peeping into the nature of man. Plato drewa sharp distinction between mind and bady, assigning the former by far the key role for generating behaviour. Aristotle’s concept ot the soul proved a corner stone in psychology for centuries. He viewed the ‘soul’ or the ‘psyche’ as meaning ‘’life’’ and considered the mind as a living moving phenomenon that directs the activities of the body. However he considered mind and body as united and thus brought psychology into the realm of Biology.
3. After the fall of the Roman empire, the precepts of the Catholic Church forced the individuals to explain behaviour once again as a result of evil spirits and demons. Later on as a result of the Renaissance in the seventeenth century there arose a revolt against the superstitions, dogmatism and witchcraft. In the middle of the seventeenth century Descartes a French mathematician and philosopher led the revolt by propagating the theory of dualism. According to this theory, mind and body are separate entities. The body is merely a machine that works automatically but human beings however possess a mind in addition to their bodies. Mind, rather than being automatic is capable of free ‘thought, imagination and memory. Therefore, human behaviour can be eaplained through the mode of inter-actions between the mind and the body. Another point, from the angle of historical importance in Descartes’s teaching was his belief in innate ideas i.e. Certain necessary truths or axioms which he supposed was inherent In man’s nature.
4. The existence of innate ideas and concept of dualism propagated by Descartes gave birth to a lot of controversy and criticism which in turn paved the way, at the end of the seventeenth century, for the doctrine of critical empiricism as advocated by the British philosophers like Joh Locke and Kant, etc. After a lot of inquiry into the question of how the mind comes to acquire knowledge, Locke rejected the notion of innate ideas. He maintained that the mind of a child is a ‘tabula rasa! or clean slate. All knowledge is derived from experience which is transmitted through the sense organs. He also gave birth to a burning dispute, (that still goes on) whether behaviour is the result of heredity or environment.
In the latter half of the eighteenth century, Kant propagated that behaviour is the result of experiences derived from two sourcesthings as they are in themselves and the mind. Things, in themselves, can never be known as they are; they can be known only as they appear in experience,| determined by the forms of our thought. Neither the world nor the self can be known to the human mind in its true nature. Therefore, with the study of psychology, an empirical science, we cannot get true metaphysical knowledge, that can provide us only empirical knowledge. The material within the purview of psychology is not reducible to quantitative terms and is therefore not susceptible to the exactness of the treatment that characterize true science.
5. The viewpoints of Locke and his successors gave birth to associationism in Great Britain. It was the first school of psychology. Daniel Hartley, Sir William Hamilton, James Mill, John Stuart Mill and Herbert Spencer are known as the architects of this school. According to this doctrine, there is a direct connection between sensation and idea. If sensation has often been experienced together, the corresponding ideas will tend to occur together; if A has been associated with B, C and D in sensory experience, the sensory experience A, occurring alone will tend to arouse the ideas of B, C and D which accompanied it. (Heidbreder, Edna, 1971).
6. Along with the views of empiricists and associationists in the eighteenth century, there sprang a new wave of psychological thought propagated by naturalists lke, Rousseau. Pestalozzi and Froebel. Yhey tried to revolt against too much intellectualization brought about by rationalists and empiricists. They insisted on the role of feelings and emotions and rejected the notion that man is essentially a creature of ideas and reason.
7. Quite contrary to the doctrines propagated by empiricists and Naturalists, there came the conception of Faculty Psychology (the theory which holds that soul or psyche is endowed with a number of powers like reasoning, thinking, remembering, etc.) propagated by the German thinkers like Christian Wolff in the first half of the eighteenth century. The faculty psychology was opposed and replaced by Herbartian psychology propagated by a nineteenth century German professor Johann Friedrich Herbart:‘ One of the most important contributions of this psychology was the doctrine of apperception. According to this doctrine, new ideas may thrust the old or unimportant ones below the threshold of consciousness. In this way, ideas once derived from experience ure never destroyed. The accumulation of such imhibited ideas is called the apperceptive mass. In acquiring new ideas we have to relate them to those in the apperceptive mass. Mental life or behaviour of the individual is, thus, according to Hertart, a struggle between ideas, each of which is active, each of which tries to remain in consciousness, and each of which tends to repel all ideas except those with which it is compatible or gets introduced. The doctrine of apperception made Herbart to think of mental phenomena in terms of mental mechanics, and also in quantitative terms. He wrote mathematical formulae to state the laws of the mind for the explanation of behaviour.
In this way during the pre-scientific era, psychology was gradually developed from the Superstitions and Cosmos level to the Herbarts’ conception of a quantitative psychology passing through the doctrines of speculation, rationalism, empiricism, naturalism and associationism.
The middle of the nineteenth century thus witnessed the end of the period of unscientific psychology and placed psychology on the same footing as other sciences to be called as a science of behaviour.
B. THe Modern AGE OF SCIENTIFIC PSYCHOLOGY
In the latter half of the nineteenth century, with the influence of the great studies in the field of Physics, Chemistry, Zoology, Geology and other natural sciences, it was being felt that human behaviour should now be studied through scientific methods instead of speculation which could not be tested under iaburaiory conditions. While explaining how the study of human behaviour should be performed, the thinkers of this age presented their independent views giving birth to different systems or schools of psychology. Let us have a glimpse of these different schools with respect to their viewpoints and history of evolution.
Structuralism: The man most responsible for the evolution of psychology into a scientific discipline is Wilhelm Wundt (1832-1920), a German professor, who opened the worlds’ first psychological laboratory in Leipzig in 1879 with the sole purpose of the systematic Study of the mind. For this purpose he focussed his experiments on conscious experience involving one’s thoughts, feelings, sensations, perceptions and ideas. As he emphasized on the analysis of the components of consciousness (supposed structure of the mind) his approach to psychology is named as Structuralism. Wundt and his students performed experiments in the laboratories by using the art of introspection or self-observation. The subjects were usually asked to report exactly what they were experiencing at the moment, they were exposed to the stimulus like light, colour, sound or the feel of an object. The psychologists performing experiments also worked as the subjects for the observations and recording of their own perceptions and feelings and then presenting the analysis of the activities of the mind.
Leipzig lab produced most of the leading psychologists. One of the well known products was Edward Bradford Titchener, a British by birth, who became professor of psychology at Cornell University in America. According to him psychology may be regarded as the science of consciousness or the study of experience. The consciouseness or experience can be broken or analysed into three basic elements; physical sensations. feelings and images (such as memories and dreams), For example, when we report perception experiences of a banana, we try to combine physical sensation (what we see) with feelings (our likes or dislikes for banana) and with images (past experiences with other bananas).
In this way, Wundt and his followers like Titchener. tried to provide a systematic study of the mind through the study of its structure (identifying the basic units of consciousness or experience along with the combinations in which they occur). Thus they all are said to be belonging to the school of structuralism.
Meanwhile, in the coming years, this school of structuralism came in for a lot of criticism because of the introspection method it chose to adopt. This method ultimately failed to provide objective and reliable information for scientilic studv.
Functionalism : Through the efforts of structuralists, psychology began to be recognised as an independent science capable of carrying out a Systematic study of the mind. It paved the way for other useful scientific ideas regarding the study of human behaviour. Consequently, there emerged a new school of thought known as Functionalism.
William James (1842-1910), the father of American psychology, is regarded as one of the first members of the functional school of psychology. Strongly influenced by the Darwinian theory and his own interest in anatomy, physiology and medicine he adopted a biological approach to the study of mind and led the field away from structuralism. He declared that there was definitely something wrong in Wundt’s and Titchener’s approach. Consciousness or experience cannot be broken up into elements, there is no way to separate ideas, thoughts, sensations or perceptions. Structuralism does not reveal anything about what the mind reaily does or how it goes about doing it. Knowing the composition or structure of the mind is not nearly as important as understanding its activities or functions. Therefore, James, through his doctrine of functionalism, advocated the theory of mental life and behaviour. He considered the mind to be a recent development in the evolutionary process, the function of which was to aid man’s adjustment to his environment The consciousness or mental life, according to him, is a continuous and flowing unity, a stream that carries the organism in its adaption to the environment. Our minds are constantly weaving associations, revising experience, Starting. stopping, jumping back and forth in time for adding to our functional abilities to adapt to our environment. Elaborating his viewpoints, he further concluded that habits are nothing but the functions of the nervous system. When we repeat an activity a number of times, Our nervous systems are altered so that the next time we do it automatically without much thought involved.
In the subsequent years of the 19th and 20th centuries, ideas ropagated by William James were strengthened on more scientific ootings by functionalists like John Dewey (1859-1951) James Row land Angell (1869-1949), J.M. Cattell, Edward L. Thorndike and R.S. Woodworth.
Behaviourism : John B. Watson put forward an entirely new doctrine named as behaviourism quite contrary to the views propagated by structuralism and functionalism. In his book Psychology as the Behaviourist Views It (1913) he concluded that the whole idea of consciousness is absurd. Consciousness cannot be proved by any scientific test, for consciousness cannot be seen, nor touched, nor exhibited in a test tube. Even if it exists it cannot be studied scientifically, because admittedly it is subjected only to private inspection. Therefore, if we intend to make psychology a science of behaviour, we should concentrate only on the observable and measurable behaviour. We have to discard altogether not only the concept of consciousness but also all the mentalistic notions like soul, mind, mental life, images and ideas, etc.
Consequently, behaviourism as a method of studying the behaviour focussed its attention totally on the overt or observable behaviour. For this purpose it tried to reduce all of man’s activity, including his thinking, feeling and willing to the level of that behaviour which could be observed and objectively recorded. In this way, a
behaviourist is not interested in the feeling of fear because it is not measurable but he pays attention to the changes in heart rate and blood pressure which are the effects of fear and can be objectively measured. The theory of behaviourism as propagated by Watson was in fact based on the findings of the Russian psychologist Ivan Palvov (1849-1936) the propagator of the theory of classical conditioning.
In his classic experiment, Pavlov conditioned a dog to salivate at the sound of a bell by substituting that sound for the sight and smell of meat and concluded that all behaviour is a response to some stimulus in the environment. Watson tried to apply this approach in the field of human behaviour. In his famous experiment with an 11 month old child named Albert he conditioned his behaviour to fear a rat by substituting the rat for a loud sudden noise. He concluded that behaviour is merely the result of a response to some environmental stimulus. How we behave and why we so behave can be successfully demonstrated and explained through habit formation or conditioning. Thus conditioning through environmental influence and not the hereditary endowments or innate differences are responsible for shaping the behaviour of a child.
Behaviourism. in this way, tries to project human beings as little more than a rather complex machine which responds in a particular set fashion to a particular kind of stimulation. Behaviour of an individual may, thus, be supposed to be controlled by environmental forces and not by the hereditary endowments or innate differences.
The strong conviction about the stimulus response, automatization and environmental influences made Watson to assert boldly in 1926 as below:
‘‘Give me a dozen healthy infants, well informed and my own specified world to bring them up in and I will guarantee to take any one at random and train him to become any type of specialist I might select—doctor, lawyer, artist, merchant chief and yes, even beggarman and thief, regardless of his talents, penchants, tendencies, abilities, vocations and race of his ancestors.”’ Behaviourism of Watson and his disciples, thus, brought a new era in the field of psychology by making it somewhat materialistic, mechanistic, deterministic and objective like most of the physical and natural sciences. However, it suffered from a number of drawbacks, limitations and short-comings. For this reason it has been subjected to criticism and being modified and refined in a number of ways by the contemporary psychologists. Commonly labelled as neo-behaviOurists as we are going to discuss them somewhere in this chapter.
Gestalt psychology
The reaction against structuralism and functionalism was not confined to America. In Germany it gave birth to a new school named as Gestalt psychology quite distinct from behaviourism. The most prominent members of this school where Max Wertheimer (18801943), Kurt Koffka (1886-1941), Wolfgang Kohler (1887-1967) and Kurt Lewin (1890-1947).
The Word Gestalt is a German noun. The nearest English translation of Gestalt is ‘‘Configuration”’’ or more simply ‘‘an organised whole” in contrast to a collection of parts. Therefore Gestalt psychology is opposed to the atomistic and molecular approach to behaviour. According to it, an individual perceives the thing as a whole and not as a mere collection of its constituents or elements. To a Gestalt psychologist, the meaning of sensation or percepticn is always related to the total situation. According to them, perception always involves a problem of organisation. A. thing is perceived as a relationship within a field which includes the thing, the viewer and a complex background incorporating the viewer’s purpose and previous experiences. Gestalists also rejected the mechanistic approach to behaviour as advocated by the behaviourist through a. simple stimulus-response connection. They asserted that there lies definitely a sort of organisation between the stimulus and response which helps in forming a new gestalt (an organised whole). For example, when looking at a tree, what 1s seen is a tree. It may be that a tree consists of colour, brightness and a form but when perceived by the mind all these components become a pattern, or a gestalt. The Gestalists further claim that when the components of a thing are brought together by the mind something new even more valuable and comprehensive than the original components may emerge consolidating the statement that the ‘‘whole is different from the sum of its parts’. As a result the human behaviour is characterized as an intelligent behaviour rather than a simple stimulus-response mechanization. An individual perceives the situation as a whole and after seeing and evaluating the different relationships in relation to the available environment takes the proper decision in an intelligent way although quite often all of a sudden. Gestalt psychology used the term ‘insight’ to describe this type of human behaviour and summarized the behavioural process under the following three steps:
(a) Perception of the situation as a whole.
(b) Seeing and judging the relationships between various factors involved in the situation.
(c) Taking an immediate decision and behave accordingly.
Gestalt psychology, in this way, stood strongly in opposition of the traditional psychology comprising structuralism, functionalism and behaviourism. Specifically they deplored the “‘brick and mortar” concept of structuralismmeaning elements “‘bricks’’ bound by association ‘“‘mortar’’ and were equally dissatished with the stimulus-response conditioning or machine like explanation of human behaviour.
Psychoanalysis
Psychoanalysis as a system or school of psychology was the brainchild of Sigmund Freud (1856-1939), a Viennese. physician… This movement put forward altogether different views quite contrary to structuralism, functionalism, behaviourism or Gestalt psychelogy for explaining human behaviour. Let us have an idea of these views:
1. The World of Unconscious. Freud claimed that there is more to mental life than consciousness. The conscious part occupies only the one-tenth portion of the total mental life. In fact, there is an even stronger force underlying behaviour, the unconscious. This vast part of the mental life of human beings remain hidden and usually inaccessible. It contains all the repressed wishes, desires, feelings, drives and motives many of which relate to sex and aggression. This hidden treasure of the human mental Iife is responsible for most of his behaviour. The key to the solution of most of behavioural problems lies in bringing the unconscious to the conscious level.
2. Psychoanalytic method: Freud gave tremendous importance to the long forgotten or repressed childhood experiences for the determination of many problems of adult behaviour. He put forward an unusual method known as the psychoanalytic method for the solution of the behavioural problems. This method involves the process of analysing the unconscious behaviour. For this purpose, Freud advocated the following techniques.
(a) Free Association: By this technique the affected individual is made to lie on a couch and say anything that comes into his or her mind no matter how trivial or ridiculous it may seem.
(B) Dream Analysis: According to Freud, the dream is essentially a disguised satisfaction for desires that have been repressed during waking life. These repressed desires or experiences are released symbolically in dreams. The analysis of these dreams can reveal the unconscious mind and thus may take to the roots of the abnormalities.
(c) Analysis of the daily psychopathology: The repressed desires or experiences lying in the unconscious can also be revealed through dayto-day psychopathology in terms of the slips of the tongue and slips of the pen, forgotten names and forgotten appointments, lost gifts and mislaid possessions.
3. Structure of Psyche: Freud further invented three concepts, the Id, Ego and Super ego for explaining the structure of psyche and used them in providing a basic structure to the human personality and basis of his behaviour.
A. The id is the deepest and most primitive part of the human personality. It consists of the man’s instinctive tendencies or primitive drives towards sexual satisfaction or pleasure seeking activities and violence or destruction. It knows no reality, follows no rules and considers only the satisfaction of its needs and drives.
B. The ego develops out of the id and acts as an intermediary between three sets of forces i.e., instinctual demands of the realities of the external world and ethical moral demands of the super ego.
C. The super ego is the ethical moral aspect of the psyche. It is ideafistic and does not care for realities. Perfection is its goal rather than pleasure seeking or destruction.
All behaviour, according to Freud, can be understood in terms of the dynamic equilibrium between id, ego and super ego. The id demands to satisfy its needs and appetites while the ego tries both, to control the id in terms of reality and to appease the super ego. The well adjusted person is governed by his ego, the anxious neurotic by guilt stemming from his super ego; the psychopath by his id. The aim of psychoanalysis is to restore the balance : ‘Where id was’, there shall ego be’ (Freud, 1935).
4. Psycho Sexual Development: According to Freud sex is the life urge or fundamental motive in life. All physical pleasures arising from any of the organs or any of the functions are ultimately sexual in nature. Sexuality is not the characteristic of only the grown-up. Children from the very beginning also have sexual desires. This, he termed as infantile sexuality. A child passes through the following different stages with respect to his psycho sexual development:
(a) The oral stage: According to Freud, mouth represents the first sex organ for providing pleasure to the child. The beginning is made with the pleasure received from the mother’s nipple or the bottle. Thereafter it is used to derive pleasure by putting anything candy, stick, his own thumb, etc.
(b) The Anal Stage: At this stage, the interest of the child shifts from the mouth (as the erotogenic zone) to the organs of elimination i.e. anus or the urethra. He derives pleasure by holding back or letting go of the body’s waste material through the anus or urethra. This stage, generally, ranges from two to three years.
(c) Genital Stage: This phase starts from the age of four years with the shifting of the child’s interest from the eliminating organs to the genitals. At this stage children come to note the biological differences between the sexes and derive pleasure by playing and manipuJating the genital organs. This stage, according to Freud, may give birth to a number of complexes like Deprivation and Electracomplexes in girls and Castration and Oedipus complexes in boys. Deprivation complex is the result of the feeling generated into the minds of the little girls that they have been deprived of the male organs by their mothers… Castration complex is generated in boys through the fear of being deprived of the male organs certainly as a result of the threat received from the elders in the form of cutting off the organ if they did not leave the habit of playing with it. About oedipus and Electra phases Freud says that they are the results of the sexual attraction or pleasure the children receive in the company of the opposite sex parent. In case the like sex parent frustrate the desire, expresses his or her resentment and is not friendly to the boy or girl, the child may be likely to develop oedipus. or electra complex by loving more the opposite sex parent and rather hating the like sex parent.
(d) The Latency stage: This period starts from six years in the case of girls and seven to eight years in the case of boys and extends upto the onset of puberty. At this stage, boys and girls prefer to be in the company of their own sex and even neglect or hate the members of opposite sex.
(e) The Phallic stage: Puberty is the starting point of the phallic stage. The adolescent boy and girl now feels a strange feeling of strong sensation in the genitals and attraction towards the members of the opposite sex. At this stage they may feel pleasure by self-stimulation of the genitals, may fall in love with ones own self by taking interest in beautifying and adorning their own body organs and may be drawn quite close to the members of the opposite sex even upto the indulgence of sex relations.
In this way, Freud through his psycho-analysis doctrine put forward quite new dimensions in the field of psychology. Its influences in terms of the totality of human behaviour (including conscious, subconscious and unconscious behaviour), structure of pysche, the concept of repression, catharsis ia the form of revealing the unconscious, the psycho-sexual development and providing sex its rightful place in the realm of human behaviour will always remain praiseworthy and immemorable. In the course of later developments in psychoanalytical movement, an association for the development of psycheanalysis was formed in 1902. The personalities of this school became famous either by virtue of their efforts in advocating Freud’s point of view or bec..use of the establishment of their own psychoanalytic systems bascd upon their own views. Two systems, namely, individual psychology established by Alfred Adler (1870-1937) and analytical psychology established by Carl Jung (1875-1961) are worth mentioning In _ these systems, it was tried to provide a substitute in the form of some general urge in place of sex (which in their opinion was judged to be overemphasized by Freud). Adler provided this substitute in terms of the self-assertion or power seeking motive and laid emphasis on the individuality of the man by advocating the proposition of the life style. Jung. on the other hand, stressed on replacing the sex urge by the more comprehensive term libido or the life urge.
The other mentionable, neo-Freudians (or betfer known as ‘‘neo-Adlerians) of the modern age have been Freud’s daughter Anna, Karen Horney, Harry Stack Sullivan, Erich Fromm, Erik Erickson and Heinz Hartmann, etc. With the efforts of these personalities, there have been modifications in the traditicnal psycho-analytical approach, particularly, in terms of de-emphasizing the role of sex and stress on the role of Society.
C. THE RECENT TRENDS IN CONTEMPORARY PSYCHOLOGY
As we have seen in the preceding pages, it has been the practice or tradition on the part of the followers of different schools like Structuralism, Functionalism, Behaviourism, Gestaltism, and psychoanalysis to focus on the weaknesses of other schools and spend a good deal of energy trying to prove a contrary point. Quite opposite to this trend, the contemporary psychology of today witnesses an electric approach in dealing with human behaviour by accepting the fact that the different viewpoints or schools help in one way or the other in studying the complex human behaviour by throwing light on some of the other aspects.
However as a matter of pin-pointing some most influensive forces working in the field of contemporary psychology we can name behaviourism and psychoanalysis as the two major forces. The other major forces in the field. may be further named as Humanist psychology, Transpersonal psychology and Cognitive psychology. We have already talked about the former two forces, now let us discuss the remaining ones.
Humanist Psychology
This new school of psychology reflects the recent trends of humanism in psychology. The personalities like Abraham Maslow, Cavlar Rogers, Rollo May, Arthur Combs, Gordon Allport and others have contributed towards its growth. Humanist psychology gives more value to the human being by not considering him merely as a sophisticated machine or the victim of conflict between the ego and id. It considers him as a purposeful being, capable of adapting himself to his environment and choosing his own course of action in order to achieve the goals which he has selected for himself. These goals may be as simple as mere satisfaction of a common physical need or as lofty as the attainment of self-actualization or self-realization.
In this way, humanist psychology lays stress on such distinctive human aspects of personality as the existence of his free will and freedom of choice and his search for unique goals and values to guide his behaviour and to give a personal meaning to his existence.
Transpersonal psychology
Transpersonal psychology is one of the latest approaches prevalent in contemporary psychology. The work of Abraham Maslow in terms of the realization of self-actualization, one’s fullest poten.ial may be said to be the corner stone of this school of Psychology. It focusses its attention on the study of personal experiences that seem to transcend ordinary existence. In other words, what do we think and how do we feel in our altered states of awareness may be the subject area of the transpersonal psychology. These states may be reached during the states of severe stress and distress or in the moments of great excitement and happiness. They may be aroused during periods of sleep or deep concentration. Experimentally they may be induced with the help of the influences brought about by some specific drugs, religious conservations, Yoga and transcendental meditation, etc.
Cognitive psychology
This new school of contemporary psychology is the result of the wave of intellectualism demonstrating faith in the higher cognitive abilities and capacities of human beings for his adaptation to his environment and struggle for perfection. The roots of this psychology may be discovered in the cognitive outlook of the gestalists who advocated an overall mental functioning by bringing the idea of Gestalt and insight in place of a molecular and mechanistic approach for the study of human behaviour.
Cognitive psychology studies all about man’s thinking, memory, language, development, perception, imagery and other mental processes in order to peer through the higher human mental functions like insight, creativity and problem-solving. Cognitive psychologists are totally opposed to the stimulus-response approach of the behaviourists. They maintain that there is something more to learning and behaving than just single responses to stimuli. The human mind does not accept an information from its environment in exactly the same form and Style as it is conveyed to him. The conveyed information is compared with the already stored information in the mind, it is then analysed and often enlarged upo: for giving it a quite new form. Finally, it is subjected to interpretation and use or storage according to the needs of the situation.
Cognitive psychology thus presents a system’s viewpoint in explaining the behaviour mechanism. In this system whatever is conveyed through stimult in the environment may work as INPUT. The cognitive functioning of the human mind as PROCESS and the result of the cognitive functioning as OUTPUT or PRODUCT.
The cognitive psychology is gaining popularity day by day. Edward Tolman, one of the founder cognitive psychologists has contributed much in the field of learning, thinking and creative functioning. While explaining the problem-solving behaviour of the higher organisms he expressed that organism tries to set up mental hypo theses about ways to solve problems and then set out to test these bypotheses through purposeful behaviour.
Jean Piaget, a Swiss, most prominent among the contemporary cognitive psychologists has shown keen interest in the study of the development of cognitive abilities and operation of cognitive processes in children. He has outlined a definite pattern and stages of the development of cognitive abilities depending upon the biological readiness of the children.
SUMMARY
Historically, the evolution of the subject psychology can be conveniently studied by breaking the period, arbitrarily, into three heads: Pre-scientific, Scientific and Present Contemporary age.
The age of preescientific psychology (stretched upto the middle of the 19th century) witnesses the following trends:
1. In the earliest age of superstitions causes and forms of human behaviour were being located in something outside the human beings i.e., planets or demons, spirits, and other Supernatural powers.
2. Subsequently, philosophers like Socrates, Plato and Aristotle etc.. with their philosophical viewpoints tried to do away with the evils of superstition. Specially after the renaissance in the 17th century there emerged quite a dominating philosophical basis of behaviour in the philosophies like dualism propagated by Descartes and empiricism advocated by John Locke and Kant.
3. In the 19th Century the viewpoints of Locke, Kant and their successors gave birth to associationism the first school of psychology—in Great ssritain, emphasizing a direct connection between sensation and idea,
4. As a reaction towards too much intellectualization brought about by associationism and empiricism there arose a wave of naturalism propagated by Rousseau, Pestalozzi and Froebel and the idea of Fuculty psychology propagated by German thinkers like Chrisuan Wolff.
5. The faculty psychology was opposed and replaced by Herbure tian psychology propagated by a nineteenth century German professor Johann Friedrich Herbart. It particularly emphasized the doctrine of apperception.
The modern age of scientific psychology
Beginning from the middle of the 19th century, the era of Modern Science and Technology adopted scientific methods instead of speculation for the study of behaviour. The following schools of thought were generated during this period:
(i) Structuralism propagated by Wilhelm Wundt (1832-1920), a German professor, emphasized on the analysis of the components of consciousness (i.e. structure of the mind) through introspection.
(ii) Functionalism initiated by William James (1842-1910), the father of American psychology, considered the mind to be a recent development in the evolutionary process, the function of which was to aid man’s adjustment to his environment. It further emphasized that habits were nothing but the functions of the nervous system.
(iii) Behaviourism propagated by John B. Watson focussed its attention totally on the overt or observable behaviour tor its objective observation.
(iv) In Germany, a group of psychologists gave birth to a new school named as Gestalt psychology quite distinct from behaviourism. It emphasized the role of Configuration or organisation in the perceptual field and high-lighted the importance of insight and understanding in learning or problem-solving.
(v) Psychoanalysis propagated by Sigmund Freud (1856-1939) put forward many new ideas like unconscious and sub-conscious mind, the concept of repression and catharsis, psychosexual development and sex. as an urge responsible for all types of behaviour, and psychoanalysis as a method of studying behaviour etc.
(vi) In the later years, Alfred Adler (1870-1937) and J. Carl Jung (1875-1961), both students of Freud, as a reaction to Freud’s over-emphasis on sex gave birth to their own schools of thought, Individual Psychology and Analytical Psychology.
Recent trends in contemporary psychology
The present World of psychology is dominated by a mixed trend involving so many schools of thought. Some schools worth mentioning are, behaviourism, psychoanalysis, humanist psychology, transpersonal psychology and cognitive psychology.
✓ Humanist psychology advocated by the contemporary psychologists like Maslow, Rogers, Arthur Combs, Gordon Allport reflects the recent human trends in psychology.
✓ Transpersonal psychology deals with what do we think and how do we feel in our altered states of awareness.
✓ Cognitive psychology has its roots in the cognitive outlook of the gestaltists. The names of psychologists like Edward Tolman and Jean Piaget are associated with the further propagation of the ideas of this psychology. It high lights the role of higher cognitive abilities and capacities of human beings for his adaptation to his environment and lays emphasis on studying cognitive development and functioning of a man to peer through his behaviour.
References and Suggested Readings
Chaplin, J.P. & Krawiec. T.S.; System and Theories of Pyschology (3rd ed ), New York: Holt, Rioehart & Winston, 1974.
Freud, S.; A General Introduction to Psychoanalysis, New York: Liveright, 1935.
Heidbreder, Edna; Seven Psychologies (ist Indian ed.) Ludhiana, Kalyani Publisbers, 1971.
Herrnsteen, R.). & Boring, E.G.; A Source Book on the History of Psychology» Cambridge Mass : Harvard University Press, 1965.
Marks, R.W. (Ed.); Great Ideas in Psychology. New York: Bantam, 1966,
Murphy, G.; An Historical Introduction to Modern Psychology (4th ed.) New York: Harcourt Brace Jovanovich, 1975.
Nordby. VJ. & Hall. C.S.; A Guide to Psychologists and their Concepts, San Francis Co.; W.H. Freeman and Company, 1974.
Skinner, B.F.; About Behaviourism, New York: Alfred knopf . 1974.
Watson, R.I ; The Great Psychologists: from Aristotle to Freud (3rd ed.), Philadelphia: Lippincott, 1971.
Wertheimer. M.; A Brief History of Psychology, New York: Holt, Rinehart & Winston, 1970.
Woodworth. R.S.; Contemporary Schools of Psychology, London: Methuen, 1948.
chapter 3
METHODS OF PSYCHOLOGY
Psychology is termed as the Scientific study of behaviour. The behaviour in all its aspects can be studied scientifically through a single technique or approach known as observation. It leads us to a simple conclusion that observation may be regarded as the only method or technique for carrying out studies regarding behaviour. In fact it is true to a great extent. However, this single technique or approach may give birth to a number of methods, techniques or approaches depending upon the types and nature of the conditions in which observations have been recorded, the procedure adopted and tools used. Let us see how this happens.
—Observation of one’s own behaviour by looking within or looking inward may be adopted as one of the approaches. Such approach is known by method of introspection.
—Sometimes the behavioural events are observed and recorded under very natural conditions by some person or persons. Such observation approach is termed as Naturalistic observation.
—Observation and recording of behavioural events under controlled conditions known as experimentation is classified as Experimental method or approach.
— When these observations are performed outside the laboratories in the real setting by adopting survey technique, the method is named as Normative survey method or the Field survey method.
—In case the observation is made through a case history (reconstruction of an individual’s biography), the approach may be termed as Case study or Case history method and if we use psychoanalysis for interpreting the behaviour of a person through the expression of his uncenscious behaviour then the method may be termed as Psychoanalytic method. In case we use the case history material and process of psychoanalysis for the diagnosis and treatment of the behavioural problems, the method is termed as Clinical method.
—In situations where physical devices are used to observe and measure psychological experiences the approach may be termed as Psycho-physical method.
In this way the various modes of observations may give birth to a number of methods and approaches such as Introspection method, Naturalistic observation method, Experimentel method, Normative Survey or Field Survey method, Psychoanalytic Clinical and Psychophysical methods. Let us discuss each of these approaches that help us to investigate the behaviour.
Introspection method
It is the oldest method known for the study of behaviour. In the earlier days of the evolution of the subject psychology, the behaviour was studied only through a kind of self examination or inner observation called introspection. Let us try to look into the meaning of the word introspection to understand this method.
Introspection is composed of two words—“‘intro”’ and ‘‘spection”’. Intro means ‘within or inward’ and spection mean$ ‘looking’. Hence introspection means looking within or looking inward. It is inner perception. Therefore in introspection, one is required to get inside one’s own mind. It isa sort of self-observation in which one perceives, analyses and reports one’s own: feelings and in fact, every thing that takes place in one’s mind during the course of a mental act. For example when in the state of anxiety, fear or anger, one may be asked to discover by one’s own observation what he sensed, thought or felt at the time of experiencing that sort of emotion.
Introspection—the self-observation and reporting of one’s own mental processes—although lacking in some respects still remains important on account of its unique nature. It 1s a simple and readily available method. Our mental processes are always with us and can be introspected at any moment. Thereby, introspection is able to give us a direct and immediate knowledge of our own mental processes without involving any extra expenditure for the material or apparatus. Moreover introspection provides us an adequate knowledge of the inner or covert experiences and thus the inner behaviour of an individual in the form of thinking or feeling something can be revealed through introspection.
However, introspection, as a method of studying behaviour, suffers from some serious drawbacks and limitations such as.
(1) In introspection one needs to observe or examine carefully one’s mental processes in the form of thoughts, feelings or sensations. The state of our mental process is continuously changing. Therefore when we concentrate to introspect a particular phase of our mental activity that phase passes off. For example when we get angry with a person and afterwards sit down calmly to introspect or self examine, the state of anger is sure to be passed on and so what one tries to observe is not what is happening at that time with oneself but what has happened some time before.
(2) Introspection as a method of study seriously lacks reliability, yalidity and objectivity on the following grounds:
A. The results lack in reliable communicability and repeatability. Here one investigator can never be sure that what he feels or senses iS the same as what other investigators do. For example, if we invite the introspection reports on the nature of the sensation of ‘‘green’’, these reports are bound to differ. Some will insist that green is a unitary sensation, whére others will say that green is a mixed sensation involving yellow and blue. We have no arrangement for the objective observation of the introspection phenomenon. Moreover ia introspection one studies one’s own behaviour or mental process. It is not possible to verify the individual’s self-observation as there 1s no provision for studying one’s mind by others in introspection.
B. Is is next to impossible to acquire validity and exactness in self-observation or examination of one’s mental process. The mind in perceiving its own functions tries to divide itself into two halves—the subject and the object. The object of observation and the instrument of observation are just one and the same. It automatically affects the validity and exactness of the observational process and the derived results. A man who is angry or afraid cannot exactly observe what is going on in his mind and remains unchanged in his emotional state of anger or fear. The consciousness on his part is sure to affect his mental or emotional state which is the object of observation:on.
(3) Introspection as a method of studying behaviour has a very limited scope. It can only be applied satisfactorily in the case of adult normal human beings. The behaviour of children, abnormal human beings, animals etc., cannot be studied by this method.
In this way, if we try to evaluate the introspection method we would find that this method is based on self speculation, lacks reliable communicability, repeatability and reasonable exactness or certainty. It is neither sufficiently scientific nor so practicable or simple to handle. Therefore, it cannot be taken as an adequate or sufficient ‘single method for psychological studies. The conclusions arrived at by this method need to be supported on specific scientific grounds by taking the help of some other objective and reliable method.
Naturalistic observation
Naturalistic observation as a method of studying behaviour consists of the perception of an individual’s behaviour under natural conditions by the other individuals and the interpretation and analysis of this perceived behaviour by them. It is thus essentially a way of ‘‘perceiving the behaviour like it is”. By this method we can infer the mental processes of other persons through the obseivation of their external behaviour. In fact it is an indirect approach for the study of the mental process. If some one frowns, howls, grinds his teeth, closes his fists, by observing external signs of his behaviour, we can say that he is angry. But to study this behavsour concerning anger in naturalistic conditions, one has to wait for the phenomenon to take place. Similarly to study the behaviour of the students in a crowd or at the time of strike, and behaviour of a delinquent or problem child the psychologist has to wait tll the particular behaviour occurs and then use al! of his resources to observe, record, analyse and interpret the behaviour from what is perceived by him in naturalistic conditions. Naturalistic observation method occupies a leading role in the study of human behaviour. It is economical, natural as well as flexible. Its results can be verified and relied upon. Particularly in studying the developmental characteristics of children’s habits, interests and other similar personality characteristics of individuals the naturalistic observation method proves quite suitable. For example the effect of the absence of a mother, or father or both on the child’s development can be determined properly through observing the development of such deprived children. Similarly a clinical psychologist may be able to collect the required data about abnormal behaviour of an individual by observing him in day-to-day life under natural conditions.
However this method also cannot be termed as sufficiently objective, reliable and valid on account of the following observations aad limitations:
2. Naturalistic observation method can be proved useful only by collecting data and observing the behaviour of an individual. It is impossible for us to know what is happening in the minds of others; we can only observe this through external behaviour. It is possible that a person may be expert in hiding his feelings and emotions from others and can disguise his evil nature in the garb of artificial sobriety. In cases of hypocrisy the method of observation proves a failure in judging the true nature of the individual concerned.
2. Subjectivity factors on the part of the investigator as well as the process of observation also affect the results of observation. There may arise distortions of observable facts depending on the degree of care in observation. His interest, values, vias and prejudices may also distort the contents and results of observation. One may give over-emphasis on some particular part of one’s behaviour and may altogether neglect some very important aspect of one’s behaviour. The interpretations of the recorded events may also be sufficiently coloured. One may read one’s own thoughts, feelings and tendencies in the minds of others. Pitfalls on account of such subjectivity may however be avoided to a certain extent by having as many observers as possible or observing the same phenomenon and employing scientific instruments, such as tape recorder, video films etc., for the recording of events.
3. Another serious limitation of the naturalistic observation method lies in the fact that the behaviour observed is dependent on the particular time and place and on the particular individual or group’s of individuals involved. It lacks repeatability as each natural situation can occur only once.
4. Another important limitation of the observation method lies ia not being able to establish a proper cause and effect relationship. In case we observe that two phenomena, say poverty and delinquency behaviour, invariably occur together, we cannot infer from this that poverty is the sufficient and necessary cause of delinquent behaviour or vice versa.
Experimental method
Experimental method is considered as the most scientific and objective method of studying behaviour. It lays emphasis on performing experiments. The word experiment comes from a Latin word meaning ‘“‘to try’, “‘put to the test’. Therefore, in experimentation we try or put to the test the material or phenomenon the characteristics or consequences of which we wish to ascertain. In sciences while doing such experiments an indoor or outdoor jaboratory in natural environment we may be interested to learn the effect of friction on motion, the effect of sunlight on the growth of the plants. etc. In psychology also, we perform such experiments in our psychological laboratory or outside laboratory in the physical or social settings to study the cause and effect relationship regarding the nature of human behaviour i.e., the effect of anxiety, drugs or stresses on the human behaviour, effect of intelligence or the participation in cocurricular activities on the academic performance of the Students. In performing all such experiments we try to establish certain cause and effect relationships through the objective observations of the actions performed and the subsequent changes produced under pre-arranged or rigidly controlled conditions. From these observations certain conclusions are drawn and theories of Principles are performed. The following are the essential features of the experimental method:
(i) Psychological experiments performed in this method essentially require two persons, the experimenter and the subject or the person whose behaviour is observed.
(ii) Psycholcgical experiments are always conducted on living Organisms in contrast to experiments in physical sciences which are generally conducted on inorganic or dead subjects.
(iii) The key factor in this method is the controlling of the conditions or variables. By this control we can eliminate irrelevant conditions or variables and isolate relevant ones. In this way we become able to observe the causal relationship between two phenomena keeping all othcr conditions almost constant. For example, if we try to study the effect of intelligence on academic achievement by experimental method, we will need to discover the causative relation between the two phenomena (variables)—intelligence and academic achievement. One of these variables, the effect of which we want to study, will be called independent variable and the other as dependent variable. Thus independent variable stands for the cause and dependent variable is characterised as the effect of that cause. The other conditions like study habits, sex, Socio-economic conditions, parental education, home environment, health, past learning, memory, etc., which exercise desirable impact upon one’s achievement besides his intelligence are termed as intervening variables. In experimentation all such intervening variables are to be controlled i.e., made constant or equalized and the effect of only one independent variable, like intelligence in the present case, is studied on one or more dependent variables. For this we try to change and vary the independent variable. It brings concomitant changes in the dependent variable or variables. These changes are objectively observed and measured and on the basis of this observation and measurement certain conclusions are drawn.
Experimental Designs: There are various experimental designs used in experimental method for controlling the variables and measuring their effects. A mentionable few of them are as follows:
A. THE CONTROL-TEST OR SINGLE GROUP DESIGN
In such designs there is no need of having two different individuals or groups of subjects for the experiment. Here a single individual or group of individuals can work as subject for the experiment. The subject whether an individual or a group of individuals is first objectively observed under normal conditions and then under changed varying conditions. The conclusions are then, drawn by comparing the differences. Suppose we wish to study the effect of fear stimuli. In the psychological laboratory, all necessary arrangements of instruments and material necessary for the study of the fear responses of the subject in the form of changes in respiration, pulse and heart beat, blood pressure, functioning of the digestive and other internal systems, facial expression etc., will be made. The initial readings regarding all these functions under normal conditions (when there is no fear stimuli present) will be taken from the related instruments. After that the subject will be exposed to sudden fear stimuli like a snake, loud noise, darkness etc., and then the changes in the readings as a result of the intensity of fear responses will be recorded from the various instruments. The difference in the second and initial readings will then indicate the different degrees of the fear intensity that could be aroused on account of the different types of fear stimuli in a particular individual.
For another illustration let us have an experiment in which we want to ascertain whether a group of students can do better on an intelligence test under the influence of a specific drug (liky benzedrine sulphate, caffeine or Brahmi).
For the desired findings we will take only one group of some students preferably of the same age, sex, health conditions etc. The process of experimentation, will then run in the following order:
(i) These students can be given sugar cupsules. After giving the Capsules they can be tested on some intelligence test. This will make the initial testing under normal conditions.
(ii) Some time later, they can be given drug capsules and tested on the same intelligence test. This will make a test under changed conditions.
(iii) The I.Q. scores under these two situations are noted down and the difference is calculated. If any significant difference is found, it is attributed to the influence of the drug.
B. CONTROL-GROUP DESIGN
Control test or single group method possesses a serious drawback known as positive practice effect. If an individual is subjected to certain kind of fear stimuli it will Surely effect the responses on account of his further exposure to fear stimul!. If a group is subjected to acertain drug, then it will automatically carry its effect or intiuence at the time of introduction of some other drugs at the latter stage. Control group designs help in minimising such practice effect.
In control group design two separate groups—known as experimental group and control group—are taken. They are equated or matched on various traits like age, sex, intelligence and other personality characteristics. There is one to one correspondence in the two equated groups. Now the one group—control group—is given sugar capsules and tested on some intelligence test. At the same time the experimental group is given drug capsules and tested on the same intelligence test. Then the differences in the intelligence scores of the groups are calculated. In case we find some significant differences, they are attributed to the effect of drug.
C. MULTIPLE-GROUP DESIGN
Sometimes, we have to experiment with more than two groups arriving at the appropriate conclusion. For example, if we want to Study the effect of having learned English at the speed with which people subsequently learn French. We decide to teach English to a group of students and then see whether they learn French more easily. But more easily than whom? Certainly we will need another group—or groups—for comparison. Group A, consisting of the English language learnt students is called the experimental group Group B may function as a control group for comparison, since it did not study English earlier. If group A learns French faster than group B, can we attribute the difference in speed to studying English earlier? Certainly not. [t may be possible that practice on account of learning any subject or language may have the same positive transfer effect. To rule out these possibilities it is essential to add some more control groups like C and D. Now if group A demonstrates a clear superiority over the other three groups, then and only then we may infer that learning English facilitates learning French. For purpose of illustration the working of multiple group design for the collection of data in the present case may run as follows:
| Group | Subject for test held in the Month of August | Test help in the Month of February |
| A | English | French |
| B | No test | French |
| C | Any subject say maths | French |
| D | Russian | French |
D. DESIGNS INVOLVING ROTATION
This design consists in presenting two or more stimulating situations to the experimental subjects in as many sequences aS necessary to control the serial effects of fatigue or practice. For example if we want to determine the relative influence of two specified conditions A and B (say praise and blame) on a group of subjects, we will not measure all the subjects under condition A and then under condition B. Condition A might so cause fatigue or train the subjects that the measures under condition B would not be independent of the fatigue or training effects. Here two alternatives can be adopted:
(i) We may obtain half the measures for condition A, all the measures for condition B, and then the otber half of the measures for condition A. This technique is sometimes called the A B B A order.
(ii) Another alternative is to separate the subjects into two equated groups, one of which receives treatment A and then B, whereas the other group receives treatment B and then A. Both sets of A results and both sets of B results may then be combined and the difference between them calculated.
Limitations of experimental method
1. Experimental method advocates the study of behaviour under completely controlled rigid conditions. These conditions demand the creation of artificial situations or environment and the behaviour studied under these conditions may be or is usually different from spontaneous or natural behaviour. Therefore experimental method fails to study the behaviour in naturalistic conditions as otherwise may be studied through naturalistic observation.
2. The second limitation or difficulty lies in exercising actual control or handling of the independent variable and the intervening
variables. It is quite dificult to know and control all of the intere vening varables. Smilarly we cannot, always, control the indepene dent variable. Therefore it is not always possible to create conditions in the aboratory as we would like to and consequently in tho absence of the desired controlled conditions. the success of this method becomes quite unpredictable.
3. In experimental method we ofien make use of the animals or birds as subjects for the experimentation. It is also debatable whether experimental results obtained from such sources are applicable to human beings or not.
4. Experimental method has a limited scope. All problems of psy chology cannot be studied by this metbod as we cannot perform experiments for all the problems that may be raised in the hetero geneous subject matter of psychology.
5. The dynamic nature of human behaviour, does not always allow the independent variable leading to the change in the dependent variable. Human behaviour is not liko a machine like behaviour The anger or lear producing stimull or variables may or may noti vield the required responses as desired under experiment and hence it is not possible to get the uniform responses or changes in tbe dependent variables on account of the concomitant changes in the independent variable.
6. Experimental method is a costy and time-consuming method. Moreover bandling of this method demands specialized knowledgei and skill. In the absence of such expertise this method is not functionable.
Differential method
Differential method is based on individual diferences. Therefore, all the measures applied to the calculation of individual differences are included in this method. Differential method is also known as i Normative Survoy method or the Field Survey method as thc investi gator has to go to the tield to investigate. It is sometimes called Statistical method tor the reason that statistical techniques become ai major factor for studying the individual differences
It differs from experimental approach in the sense that here the investigator cannot intentionally manipulate the variables. Each is studied as an independent variable. For example, in the case of studying the relationship of achievement with intelligence, it is not possible to manipulate the intelligence. Therefore, we have to lakei cach individual and study his achievement with respect to his intelll gence. After that with the help of statistical techniques we can try to arrive at certain conclusions.
There are two types of main approaches or designs, which are used in differential method. They are:
(i) Correlation approach.
(ii) The Longitudinal and Cross-sectional approach.
In correlation studies the psychologist takes people as they are and studies what they do usually without changing the conditions under which they respond to the tests or perform the desired tasks. For example, in the above case of finding relationship of achievement with intelligence, the intelligence as well as achievement, say academic achievement of each individual (in study) can be found with the help of intelligence as well as achievement tests. The subjects wil! naturally differ from one another and by using the statistical technique of correlation, the desired relationship can be concluded.
By the longitudinal approach we mean an approach that is spread over a long period of time. It is most used in Developmental Psychology. Here one particular individual is taken and is studied for a long span of time.
In cross-sectional approach we take many individuals and study them simultaneously.
In all these approaches, the help of statistical analysis is taken for calculating aad analysing the individual differences and then relevant conclusions are arrived at by the interpretation of these measures.
Clinical method
Whereas experimental and differential methods are generally used to investigate general behaviour facts, the clinical method is directed towards the study of individual behaviour. The clinical set-up or environment is associated with the health care and treatment of the individuals who come for advice and treatment of their physical and, mental disorders. In the same sense. clinical methods remind us about all those methods which deal with the task of investigating the root causes of a problem or exceptional behaviour and suggesting as well as providing proper environment and possible treatment:
The concept of a clinical method is well contained in the concept of clinical Psychology itself which can be described as: Clinical Psychology is the art and technology of dealing with the adjustment problems of the individual. Analysis of this definition may help us to observe some of the following characteristics regarding nature and working of the clinical method;
(i) Clinical method is applicable to an individual case.
(ii) The individual has some problems.
(iii) Both methods of diagnosis and treatment are employed in dealing with these problems.
(iv) Clinical approach is an art as well as a science and technology which means that everybody cannot treat every patient and it derives pleasure in making mankind healthier and better.
Thus, the basic elements in this method of psychological investigation are the diagnosis and treatment of the problem or mental illness of an individual.
Method of Diagnosis: Diagnosis in a clinical method calls for a symptomatic picture of the total situation for finding out the root cause of illness or behavioural! problem. For such diagnosis one has to look for the past events or experiences of the individuals, their impact and reactions, the present environment and adjustment problems and the total personality make-up, etc. For ascertaining all these aspects the following techniques are generally employed:
(a) Adequate Physical Check-up: The individual suffering from some behavioural problem must be made to go through adequate physical check up for ascertaining whether the behaviour exhibited is of a functional or an organic basis. In case there are no physical somatic causes for the underlying behaviour, then and then only should it be made a subject for the diagnosis of psychological treatment.
(6) Making out the case history: For finding out the clues or digging out the events from the earlier experiences of the individual responsible for the present behaviour, the psychologist, then, tries to make use of the case history technique.
In this technique information is collected from the memory of the individual, his parents, members of his family, relatives, guardians, neighbours, friends, teachers, doctors and from all other available records and reports concerning the individual’s past. For collecting the relevant information the following heads may be used:
1 Identifying Data: This comprises the name of the individual, fathcr’s name, residential address, date of birth, caste/religion, nature of exceptional or abnormal behaviour, etc.
2. Environmental background: Information about the members of the family, parents, their mutual relationships and behaviour with the individual under study, educational and socio-economic status of the family, the accidents and incidents that have occurred in the family, types of neighbours, friends and socio-cultural environment, types of school education and school or job situation environment etc.
3. Developmental History: History of the growth and developmental process of the individual in relation to the treatment, behaviour and environmental facilities available from birth onwards, history of his mental and physical health, educational and occupational history, social and emotional adjustment history, sex-life history etc.
4. History of his exceptional abnormal behaviour. All the relevant information regarding the subsequent development of the behaviour in question upto the present stage.
(c) The Clinical interview: Additional but very very important information may be collected by the investigator by arranging clinical interviews with individuals. For this purpose he may carefully plan appropriate questions and persuade the individual to give free and frank answers by establishing necessary rapport. For understanding the inner working of the mind of the individual, be may be given the opportunity to talk about himself in this interview session. From these responses, the investigator, may then draw his own conclusions for the diagnosis of the root cause of the behaviour.
(d) Direct observation of the behaviour: Direct observation of the behaviour of the individual by the investigator in the real natural set-up, living and working conditions may serve a quite useful purpose for getting to know the nature and causes of the behaviour. In the case of children, directly observing them at play, may serve the useful purpose of learning all about the chifd, his behaviour and problems.
(e) Using tests and measuring: devices: Help may also be taken from certain testing and measuring devices to ascertain the interests. abilities, attitudes, aptitudes and total personality make up of the individual and thus gather the relevant information for understanding the individual and his behaviour.
Method and treatment
Diagnosis is to be followed by treatment in order to serve the welfare of the individual. In case of the behavioural problem treatment, efforts are to be made to bring about a change in the behaviour of the individual in order to get him adjusted to his environment and thus ultimately restore him to his normal mental health. Usually it can be accomplished in two ways: ,
1. Modifying the environmental forces.
2. Modifying the client’s attitude.
The physical and socio-cultural environment surrounding the individual needs to be modified in such a way that the individual may not be subjected to further disharmony and maladjustment. Rather he should be abie to get a pleasant and encouraging environment characterized by wholesome and harmonious relationships with other social beings and he should be given enough opportunity to enable him fulfil his basic needs. For this purpose the following measures may be adopted:
(i) The client may be physically removed from one situation and placed in another like boarding houses, foster homes or with guardians and adopted parents.
(ii) The attitude of parents, teachers and others toward the ef client may be changed.
(iii) More adequate recreational facilities, living conditions, work placement and working conditions may be provided or some $uitable measures for the sublimation and catharsis of repressed desires and wishes may be taken.
For bringing a change in the behaviour a complete madification Of the client’s philosophy of life is required. He must be made to harmonise his thinking. feeling and doing. For this purpose a number Of measures like the following may be adopted:
(i) Guidance and counselling.
(ii) Psychoanalysis.
(iii) Techniques like auto-suggestion, hypnosis, psychodrama and role playing.
(iv) Therapies like psychotherapy, group therapy, play therapy, occupation therapy, attitude therapy, etc.
Psycho physical methods
The branch of psychology which is concerned with the study of relationship between physical and psychological phenomenon is called psycho-physics. In this sense, the term psycho-physical methods may be referred to all those methods in which attempts are made to employ physical devices for the scientific measurement of some psychological experiences like sensation of weight. brightness, loudness and other such magnitudes. The other complicated psychological phenomena like sleep or span of memory etc., can also be studied through the use of such psycho-physical methods.
Three classical psycho-physical methods devised by the German physiologist and physicist Gustav Fechner (1801-1887), the father of psycho-physics are still in vogue. They are:
(i) The method of minimal changes or methods of limits.
(ii) Tbe method of constant stimuli or the method of right and wrong responses.
(iii) The method of average or mean error.
These methods are primarily employed to measure absolute threshold and the difference threshold. Both the absolute threshold and the difference threshold are statistical concepts and both are measured in much the same way.
The absolute threshold may be defined as the minimum value of a physical stimulus that reliably produces sensation. Absolute threshold, thus, separates the sounds we can hear from those we cannot, the odors we can smell from those we cannot, the brightness of the light we can see from that which we cannot and so on.
The difference threshold may be defined as the minimum difference in value between two stimuli that can be perceived by the subject. For example, when one experiences a particular weight put on his hand, the difference threshold is the minimum weight that should be added to it so that the total becomes distinguishable from the first. Let us now give a brief idea of the three psychophysical methods mentioned above.
The method of minimal changes or the methods of limits
This method may be used for finding out the absolute threshold and difference threshold. The procedure is outlined as follows:
1. The subject is exposed to experience a sensation. For example he may be asked whether he is able to see the object lying ata particular distance (say 80 cms) or not.
2. If he says no then the value of the distance ie gradually decreased until the subject reports that he is able to see it. Suppose at the distance of 77 cms he says no but at the distance of 76 cms he says yes, then both these values at which the subject’s judgement changed from saying no to yes about the visibility of the object will be noted down by the experimenter.
3. in the next round, the object may be placcd at the distance much nearer than the absolute threshold say 70 cms in the present casc. This distance may. then be gradually increased tll the subject reports that he does not see the object. The successive values at which the subject’s respunse changes from yes to no is noted down. Let these values be 75 and 76 cms in the present case.
4. All these values pertaining to minimal changes in the value of the absolute threshold or difference threshold in both the descending and ascending series of trials are then noted down.The process is repeated many times. After the completion of several ascending and desecnding series; the experimenter, may then, complete the average of all these minimal values. (The limits of the intensity of the sensory stimuli Which produces a change from 0 to 100 per cent in terms of the feeling of sensation). In the present exmaple, we may thus compute the average of the values. 77, 76, 75 and 76 etc. Yielding the value 77 – 76 – 75 – 76 / 4 i.e 76cm as a minimal value of the distance
at which the subject may be able to see the experimental object.
In a similar way, absolute threshold concerning auditory intensity mav also be determined. In an ascending series of trials, the experimenter while beginning with a clearly sub-threshold value. may progressively raise the intensity of the sound until the subject reports that he hears the sound. In the descending series of trials, he may gradually decrease the intensity of sound till the subject reports that he hears no sound. The average of ali these values in the several ascending and descending series at which the subject’s response is changed from yes to no or vice versa about the hearing of the sound 1s then calculated for designating the absolute threshold.
The method of constant stimuli (the method of right and wrong cases)
In this method the value of the intensity of the sensory stimulus is neither gradually increased nor decreased as in the case of the method of limits but the sensory stimuli of varying intensity are preSented at random before the subject. The stimuli include at least one Sample that is well above the probable threshold value and another Sample that is well below it. The subject is then asked to indicate Whether or not he detects each of these randomly presented stimuli. The responses in the form of yes or no of the subject are then noted by the experimenter and ultimately the probability of yes response is related to intensity of the stimuli. All the values related with the yes responses are then, averaged to give the required threshold.
The Method of average error
This method is also called the method of mean error or the adjustmeat method. In performing experiment by this method, the subject is presented with some stimulus of a standard intensity. He may then be asked to adjust a variable stimulus to his standard by making a number of attempts. In doing so he may miss the standard by a more or less margin. This is referred to as error. The average of such errors committed is noted down. It is subtracted or added to the stundard value (depending upon the +ive or —ive sign of the computed average error) for giving the subject’s absolute threshold of sensitivity to the stimulus
Conclusion regarding methods
Which of the above discussed methods is suitable in studying the problems of psychology is a difficult question to be answered. All these methods have their own strengths and weaknesses and possess some unique characteristics which make them highly specific in a particular situation. However, a wise investigator must keep in mind the factors of objectivity, reliability and validity for the solution of the problem in hand. He should have a deep insight into the nature of his subjects, his problem, the environmental surroundings and the resources at hand and accordingly select a proper method or methods to keep himself as scientific and objective as possible for deriving the best possible results from his study.
SUMMARY
Study of behaviour in psychology can be made through the observauon of behaviour. This observation may be carried out in various forms giving birth to a variety of methods, discussed below:
1. Introspection is a sort of self-observation in which one perceives, analyses and reports one’s own feelings and in fact, everything that takes place in one’s mind during the course of a mental act. Although it provides a simple, inexpensive and readily available method for studying one’s behaviour, yet it is termed as a quite unscientific method.
2. Naturalistic observation provides a way of studying the behaviour of an individual, by some other individual, in the most natural conditions. Valuable data for studying human behaviour can be collected through this method. However, it can not also be termed as sufficiently objective, reliable and valid for studying human behaviour.
3. Experimental method is considered a most scientific and objective method for studying behaviour. Here we try to study the cause and efféct relationship regarding the nature of human behaviour by performing experiments i.e., the objective observations under rigidly controlled laboratory like conditions. The key factor to this method is the controlling of conditions or variables. There are three types of variables—independent, dependent and intervening Independent variable stands for the cause and dependent for the effect of that cause. The other conditions or factors that influence the cause and effect relationship are called intervening variables. In an experiment all such variables are needed to be controlled. For exercising such control we may make use of various experimental designs like control test or single group design, contro! group design. matching group design and design involving rotation depending upon the demands of the experiment and availability of the resources athand.
4. Differential method is based on individual differences. It is also called normative survey method. Here we study the behaviour of the individuals to find out the relative differences. Correlation, longitudinal and cross sectional studies made in psychology are included in the realm of this method. Help of statistical measures is also taken in this method for the necessary analysis and interpretation of collected data through the normative survey techniques.
5. Clinical method helps in the diagnosis and treatment of the problem or exceptional behaviour of an individual. Diagnosis may be carried out through an adequate physical check up, building up a comprehensive history (digging out the events or finding out the clues for the present behaviour), arranging clinical interview, using relevant tests and measuring devices and observing the client’s behaviour in natural surroundings. Treatment is usually of two kinds (i) modifying the environmental forces and (ii) modifying the clients attitude to help him adjust to his environment.
6. Psycho-physical methods employ physical devices for the scigntitic measurement of some psychological experiences like sensation of weight, brightness, loudness and other such magnitudes. The popular psycho-physical methods are (i) the method of minimal changes or the method of limits, (ii) the method of constant stimuli or the method of right and wrong responses and (iii) the method of average or mean error.
All these psychophysical methods are primarily employed to measure absolute threshold (minimum value of a physical stimulus that reliably produces sensation) and the difference threshold (minimum difference in value between two stimuli that can be perceived by the subject).
References and Suggested Readings
Andrews. T G. (Ed.), Methods of Psychology, New York: John Wiley, 1960.
Boring, EG.. A History of Experimental Psychology (2nd ed.) New York: Appleton-Century-Crofts, 1950.
Horney, K; New Ways in Psychoanalysis. New York: W.W. Norton & Co. 1939. Sidman, M.; Tactics of Scientific Ressarch, New York: Basic Books, 1960.
Wilson. EB. Jr. ; An Introduction to Scientific Research, New York: McGrawii, 1952
Woodworth, R.S.; Experimental Psychology, New York: Holt, 1938 (Revised edition 1954).
Chapter 4
PHYSIOLOGICAL BASIS OF BEHAVIOUR
Attempts have been made to explain why and how we behave in a particular way in a given situation from different standpoints. Here= dity endowment or environmental influence or the interaction of both has been made responsible for the causation and occurrence of human ‘behaviour. The cognitive factors including intelligence have bzen supposed to be potent factors in an underlying behaviour. Psychological factors like interests, attitudes, emotions and sentiments, mood, and temperament, psycho-state and mental health have also been recognised as major influensable attributes. Apart from all these factors it has been commonly agreed that behaviour in all its forms and shapes definitely has a biological or physiological base.
The mechanism of the human body not only directs the functioning of the sense organs and the process of growth and maturation but also dictates and influences the delicate and complex processes such as thinking, learning and emotional responses. Thereby, it becomes Imperative to pay attention to the mechanism of the human body for the necessary study of human behaviour. There are two important and distioct mechanisms, namely, the nervous system and ductless glands that have been adjudged to carry strong influence over human behaviour. Let us try to get an idea of these body mechanisms.
NERVOUS SYSTEM
The neuron-basic unit of the nervous system
The human body is composed of different types of cells like bone cells, muscle cells, body cells, etc. Each type, consisting of millions of tiny cells, forms a single unit which has a specialized function. The duty of carrying electrical messages from one part of the body to the other has been assigned to nerve cells. Our nervous system is made up of these nerve cells. A nerve cell with all its branches is called a neuron. This neuron is the ultimate structure and functional unit of the nervous system The number of these neurons jn a human nervous system has been estimated at 100 to 200 billion. They are basically alike in structure but appear in different lengths, sizes and shapes Gesigned for specialized functions. Within each neuron there are millions of RNA molecules, each carrying genetic instructions from the DNA.
A neuron has a nucleus, a cell body, and a cell membrane to enclose the whole cell. There are tiny fibres extending out from the cell body called dendrites. Their role is to receive messages through electrical impulses from the sense organs or adjacent neurons and carry them to the cell body. The messages from the cell body further travel the length of a nerve fibre known as the axon. A group of axon, bundled together like parallel wires in an electrical cable, 1s referred to as nerve. The axon (but certainly not all of them) is surrounded by a fatty covering called a myelin sheath. Its function is ta speed up the transmission of the messages. The messages thus transmitted are further carried to a muscle or a gland or a neighbouring nevron through the terminal branches of the nerve fibre.
These neurons or nerve tissues are spread all over the body, There are three types of neurons. The sensory neurons collect messages from inside and outside the body and carry them to the spinal cord and brain. These neurons help in the processes of sensation and perception. The motor neurons carry messages from the brain and Spinal cord to the muscles and the glands. They are responsible for physical movements and activation of glands. The inter neurons or association neurons carry messages from one neuron to another. Their specific role is to carry signals in the form of memories and thoughts and to add reflex or automatic activities.
The Neural Impulse: Neurons as we have seen are the receivers and transmitters of messages. This message is always in the form of electro-chemical impulses. Let us sce how this work is carried on by the neurons.
A neuron in its resting pusition is supposed to maintain a sort of electrical equilibrium i.e., state of polarization. It is because inside the cell membrane of the neuron, there are negatively charged ions and outside the neuron membrane there arc positively charged ions, This state of polarization may be disturbed on account of the effect of the tugger like action of a stimulus applied to the membrane. It causes a sudden change in the electrical potentiality of the neuron. It gets depolarized and a neuron or neural impulse is thus initiated.
The neural impulse is not initiated in response to every electrical message (or impulse) it receives. If the incoming message is not strong enough, it will not cause a change in its electrical potentiality and nothing will happen. The incoming message must be above a certain threshold of intensity if it is to cause a neural impulse.
In this way, a neuron will either be releasing the neural impulse to the extent it is being excited by the messages or impulses it receives or it will not be disturbed at all releasing no neural impulse. This principle is known as the all-or-none law. The law may be stated formally as under:
“The magnitude of the activity in any single neural functioning unit (neuron) is as great as it can be in that unit at that time and is independent of the magnitude of the energy exciting it, provided only that the stimulating energy is sufficiently strong to excite the neuron at all.” (Boring, Langfeld & Weld, 1948 p. 28)
How does the neuron impulse travel further from one neuron to another? There must be some connection for the flow of the current. Certainly there is. There is a fluid-filled space called the Synapse _ between the axon of the neuron and the receiving dendrite of the next. After reaching the end branches of an axon, an impulse signals the release of a chemical substance (neuro transmitter). This chemical transmitter substance is what actually travels across the pap between the two neurons. With the help of the release of a neuro-transmitter into the synapse, one neuron 1s capable of sending its message on to many other neurons. It makes possible for a single neuron to receive messages from thousands of other neurons.
The division of the human nervous system
The human nervous system can be divided into two parts: the central nervous system and the peripheral nervous system.
1. The Central Nervous System: The central nervous system is that part of the nervous system which lies within the body case formed by the skull and spine. The brain and the spinal cord constitute this system.
2. The brain: It is the control room of the huge complicated telephone system of the body. It is composed of three main divisions: the forebrain, the midbrain and the hindbrain.
3. The forebrain: The forebrain is at the very top of the brain. Its important structures are the thalamus, the hypothalamus and the cerebrum. The thalamus consists of two egg shaped structures situated in the central core Of the forebrain just over the brainstem. All sensory impulses pass through it to the higher centres. Therefore, it is usually known as the relay station. In addition, the thalamus seems to exercise some control over the automatic nervous system and also plays a role in the control of sleep and alertness.
‘Hypothalamus lies below the thalamus. It exerts a key influence on all kinds of emotional as well as motivational behaviour. Centres in the hypothalamus exercise control over the important body processes like eating, drinking, sleeping, temperature control and sex. It also exerts control over the activities of the pituitary gland which is located just below it.
The cerebrum lies at the very top of the brain. It is the most complex and largest part of the brain. It extends from the eyebrows to the middle of the skull. It is divided into two hemispheres; the left brain and right brain which controls behaviour in the right and left body sides respectively. A great mass of white matter called the corpus callosum connects these two hemispheres to each other and to the other parts of the nervous system. The cerebrum is covered by a thick layer of tightly packed neurons—called the cerebral cortex. Different areas of the cerebral cortex like sensory projection areas, motor projection areas and association areas, etc., have been found to be responsible for different functions. In this way, the cerebral cortex, also known as the new brain has the ability to perform the functions of storing sensory information, controlling body movements, coordinating all information that comes to the brain and regulating highly cognitive functions such as thinking, reasoning and problem-solving.
4. The Midbrain: The midbrain is a sort of bridge connecting the forebrain (at the top) and hindbrain (at the base). It is particularly concerned with the relaying of messages, particularly those related to hearing and sight) to higher brain centres. One of its important structures is known as recticular activating system (RAS). With the help of this structure an individual is able to decide which impulses Should register consciously and which should be repressed or rejected. Co nsequently, it helps him to concentrate on studying even with the radio set on and sleep soundly with a noisy environment.
5. The Hindbrain: The Hindbrain is situated behind and beneath the Forebrain. It rests within the brainstem, a structure that connects the upper part of the spinal cord with the lowest part of the brain. It is composed of three structures, the medulla, the pons and the cerebellum.
6. Medulla lies nearest to the spinal cord. It controls breathing and many important reflexes such as those that help us maintain our upright postures. It also regulates the highly complex processes like digestion, respiration and circulation which are necessary for the preservation of life.
The pons connects the cerebrum at the top of the brain to the topmost section of the hindbrain, the Cerebellum. It assists the breathing, transmitting impulses from the cerebellum to the higher brain regions and coordinating the activities of both sides of the brain.
The Cerebellum is composed of two circular hemispheres. It helps in performing many bodily functions. It is responsible for body balance and the coordination of body movements. Behaviours like dancing, typing and playing the piano depend on this structure.
Localization of the brain functions
As we know, there are a number of mental functions that are performed by our brain. Whether a specific function is performed by a specific part of the brain or not; and how far our mental functions are dependent on several different areas of the brain; this problem concerning localization of psycho functions in the brain has been a matter of considerable research and experimentation.
Lashley’s laws on localization
On the basis of their experiments, Franz and Lashley have provided two distinct laws on cerebral localization, namely, the law of mass action and the law of equi-potentiality.
Where the law of mass action means that the learned habits disintegrate in the ratio in which the cortex nerve fibres are destroyed, the law of equi-potentiality asserts that every point of cortex has equal potential. The potentiality of cortex destroys in the ratio the potentisality destroys.
These two laws, thus, may lead us to conclude that localization of brain functions is not possible. However, further studies and extengive research in this area have given enough evidence to prove that in human beings, while simple reflex actions are localized in sub-cortical parts of the central nervous system, all other acts of simple or higher mental functioning are carried out by the different areas of the cerebral cortex. Let us describe the localization in brief:
1. Motor Area: Motor areas of the cerebral cortex lie in the form of narrow strips just in front of the Central fissure (a large fold that extends from the top of the head to the ears). These areas belonging to each hemisphere control the movements of the body of its opposite side by telling the muscles and glands what to do. While movements of the toes, feet and legs are controlled by the centres lying at the top of this motor region the movement of the mouth and tongue are controlled by the centres located in the lower region. Movement of these parts of the body get paralysed when due to one or the other reasons. the associated motor area suffer extirpation or destruction.
2. Bodily Sensory Area: The parietal lobes of the brain are connected with body sensations such as temperature, pain and the feel of objects. The functioning of the centres located in this area is similar to that of the motor areas i.e., the centres Jocated in the upper region controls the sensations of the lower parts of the body and the centres located in the lower region control the sensations of the upper parts of the bodv.
3. Visual Area: The visual centres responsible for vision are located in the occipital lobes at the very back of each hemisphere. These centres help the individual in the matter of discriminating and identifying shape, size, distance and colour of the environmental objects. Destruction of this area in an individual may cause complete blindness in him.
4. Auditory Areas: Auditory centres are located at the side of each hemisphere in the temporal lobes. They are responsible for providing various auditory experiences in terms of identification and discrimination of various sounds stimuli present in the environment. Their loss by destruction or operation may cause ‘Cortical deafness’, state of partial deafness.
5. Speech Area: This area, responsible for the controlling and conduct of speech lies a bit below the motor area in the frontal Jobe. The destruction or damage of this area may cause speech hindrance.
6. Association Area: The largest of the association areas is located in the frontal lobe of the brain, just under the forehead, Rather than directly influencing sensory or motor responses (which is almost the function of other sensory or motor areas) they are chiefly concerned with higher cognitive functions like thinking and problemsolving. A man’s ability to order his bebaviour and direct it towards a goal depends especially on these areas.
Spinal cord
It is that part of the central nervous system which lies within the backbone. It is a rope-like structure made up of bundles of long, nearly round nerve fibres. The inside of the spinal cord has a grayish colour; while outside the coverings of myelin sheaths gives it a whitish appearance. Spinal cord’s function is two-fold. In the first place, it works a channel of communication from and to the brain. Secondly it works as an organ for effective reflex action. Let us see how it helps in performing reflex or automatic reactions.
The action like closing of the eyelid when something threatens the eye and the withdrawal of the hand when something hot or cold touches it are known as reflex actions. Such reflex acts are almost automatic in nature. They are controlled by our spinal cord. Normally the messages (sense impressions or impulses caught through the sensory nerves) are conveyed to the brain by the spinal cord and it is the brain that takes the decision. But there are times, when an immediate action is needed. Then the spinal cord gets the emergency Signal and instead of receiving orders from the brain, itself directs the motor nerves to run the muscles for necessary movement. In this way, the spinal cord helps in exercising reflex movements.
In the preceding article, we have discussed the brain and the spinal cord under two separate heads as two distinct structures. But in the real sense, there is no definite point of division between them. The spinal cord, at its upper end gets enlarged as to merge with the lower part of the brain. The point or portion of the nervous system which functions as a joint or connecting line between the spinal cord and brain is known as brainstem. Inits actual functioning it serves like a stalk that supports the whole structure of the brain.
B. THE PERIPHERAL NERVOUS SYSTEM
Thenerve tissues lying outside the bony case of the central nervous system come in the region of the pheripheral nervous system. It consists of a net-work of nerves which helps in passing the sense impressions to the Central nervous system as well as in conveying the orders of the central nervous system to the muscles. Because of these two functions, the pheripheral nervous system is sub-divided into two parts—the Somatic system and the autonomic system.
The Somatic system is both sensory and motor. In this system, sensory and motor nerves, both are found running to and from the sense receptors, muscles and the surface of the body. The autonomic system, on the other hand, is only a motor system. It consists of a number of motor nerves leading from the central nervous system for serving the blood vessels, heart glands and other internal organs of the body and regulating processes such as respiration, digestion, gland functioning and emotion.
The autonomic nervous system consists of two divisions~ the sympathetic system and the para-sympathetic system.
The sympathetic system is connected to the spinal cord on either side and carries messages to the muscles and glands particularly in stress situations to prepare for an emergency, to get ready to act quickly and strenuously. In such situations it is the sympathetic system that causes adrenal glands to start producing hormones. As a result, our blood pressure and heart rate is suddenly increased, pupils are enlarged, digestion is stopped and several bodily changes are marked.
The para-sympathetic system is connected to the brain and the lower portion of the spinal cord. It tends to be active when we are calm and relaxed. The messages conveyed by the nerve fibres of this system direct the organs to do just the opposite of what the sympathetic system had asked. In other words it directs the body organs to return to anormal state after an emergency has passed. As a result, our breathing slows down, heart goes back to beating at its normal rate, the stomach muscles relax, digestion begins again, the pupils of the eyes constrict and the blood pressure is lowered. In this way para-sympathetic system does many things, that taken together build up and conserve the body’s store of energy. In spite of their opposite nature, sympathetic and para-sympathetic divisions of the autonomic nervous system work in close co-operation for maintaining the equilibrium of the body functioning.
The influence of the nervous system on human behaviour
The nervous system, which has reached its highest point of evolutionary development in human beings plays a significant and dominant role in coordinating the activities of every structure in the body. Every bit of our behaviour, to a great extent, is controlled by Our nervous system. How we will behave in a particular situation depends upon the judgement of our brain (or our spinal cord in the Case of reflex behaviour). The sense impressions, which we receive
through our sense organs, do not bear any significance unless, they are given meaning by our nervous system. Therefore, our observations and percepticns are, by all means, controlled by the nervous system.
Our learning also, to a great extent, is controlled by the nervous system. How intelligently we react or make use of our mental powers are again decided by our nervous system, particularly the brain apparatus. The proper growth and development of nerve tissues and nervous system as a whole helps in the task of proper intellectual development. Any defect in the spinal cord or brain apparatus seriously affects the intellectual growth.
Similarly, physical as well as emotional development is: also influenced by our nervous system. Our autonomic nervous system plays a leading role in this direction. It controls the activities of involuntary processes like circulation of blood, digestion, respiration and action of the glands. The equilibrium of the body functioning is almost maintained by the sympathetic and para-sympathetic divisions of our autonomic nervous system. During emotional behaviour, specially atthe time of anger, fear and other emotional outburst nerve tissucs also cause the change in the secretion of hormones by some glands and consequently influence the emotional behaviour of an individual. Moreover, the nervous system acts as a coordinating agency for many operations inside the body and harmonizes the activities and functions of the body parts—internal as well as external.
In a nutshell, an intricate net-work of nerve cells and an elaborate brair work together coordinate the functioning of all our body systems and control all the cognitive. conative and affective aspects of our behaviour. The process of growth and development is also directly and indirectly controlled by the functioning of the nervous system and in this way, the personality of an individual is greatly influenced as well as structured through mechanisms of the nervous system.
The endocrine system
Besides the nervous system, the human body also possesses a second major coordinating and controlling system for regulating its internal mechanisms in the name of Endocrine System. This system works quite automatically by means of some specific body structures called endocrine glands. These glands are quite different from the duct glands like salivary glands which pour their secretion through ducts (litle tubes) to the body surface directly. On the other hand, the endocrine glands do not need ducts to pour the secretion. Their secretions, known aS hormones, are poured straight into the blood stream, which in turn Carries them to the body tissues. It explains the reason of naming the endocrine glands as ductless glands.
The endocrine glands lie in different areas of the body as may be seen from the figure shown.
Let us now try to understand the mechanism of these glands:
1. The Pineal Gland: This gland is situated within the brain. Whereas in lower animals, it is supposed to serve as a warning device, in the case of human beings it regulates the timing of biological functions like walking and sleeping, reproductive activities, the appearance of secondary sex characteristics and the female’s mensus cycles, etc.
2. The Pituitary Gland: The pituitary gland is situated at the base of the brain and is connected toa brain centre called the hypothalamus. It is also nimed as master gland because it produces
the largest number of different hormones, at least six in number. and affects the functioning of all other glands. This gland has a two part structure: the anterior lobe and the posterior lobe.
The anterior lobe is situated towards the front of the gland. It is controlled by the chemical messages from the blood stream. It affects the functioning of the body through the secretion of different hormones as below:
(i) It secretes thyrotropin, a thyroid stimulating hormone that controls metabolic rate or the ability of the body to adjust to temperature changes.
(ii) It produces Somatotrophic hormones which exercises great influence on the growth of bones. The under production of this hormone causes incomplete development and we have a dwarf, whereas the over production results in gigantic growth and we have a giant.
(iii) It also produces adrenocorticotrophic hormone which helps in supplementing the activities of other glands like adrenal and sex glands.
The posterior lobe situated towards the back of the gland is controlled by the nervous system. One of its hormones, Vesorressin regulates the body’s blood pressure and the amount of water in the body’s cells. Oxytocin, another posterior pituitary hormone helps the uterus to contract during child-birth and also causes the mammary glands to start producing milk.
3. The Thyroid Gland: The thyroid gland is located at the base of the neck just below the larynx or voice box (in front of the wind pipe). It produces one primary hormone-thyroxin; the main constituent of which is iodine. Thyroxin plays a leading role in controlling the process of oxidation of food. It regulates the body’s oxygen consumption and the rate of metabolism. The deficiency of thyroxin Causes under-activity of the thyroid gland which not only retards the growth of the body but also causes mental retardation and disorders. Over secretion of this hormone is equally harmful as it can produce hypothyroidism, a condition characterized by nervousness, high blood pressure, and fatigue.
4. The Parathyroid glands : These glands look like tiny pea-shaped organs and are located in the back surface of the thyroid and are, generally, four in number. They secrete a hormone known as patathormone which controls the level of calcium and phosphate in the blood and tissues and thus helps in counterbalancing the exciting activities of thyroxin, the thyroid hormone. The parathyroid glands remove the toxic products from the body and restore the nervous system to relative calm. Their under activity may result in muscle spasms and excitability whereas over activity can lead to muscle weakness, fatigue, lethargy and poor physical coordination.
5. The Thymus Gland : Thymus gland is located within the chest. It secretes some important hormones which help us to regulate the
lymphoid system and to develop the immune reactions of the body for fighting against diseases.
6. The Adrenal Glands : These glands, two in number, surround two kidneys separately. Each gland has two parts, an inner core called the adrenal medulla and an outer covering called the adrenal cortex.
The adrenal medulla secretes adrenalin and noradrenalin hormones that assist the body in its reaction to emergency situations especially at the time of intense fear and anger.
The adrenal cortex is known to secrete at least twenty hormones, some of which help the pituitary gland to control metabolism particularly in stress situations. Adrenal cortex along with the Gonads (the sex glands) produces androgen, a male hormone, present in both sexes. The over secretion of the hormone androgen may result in increased masculine characteristics which in the case of women may produce extremely masculine characteristics like the growth of beard and moustache.
A few other hormones of the adrenal cortex also cast great influence in terms of secondary sex characteristics and sex functioning. Their over secretion makes an individual highly active and energetic. It may also cause sexual maturity at an early age. A little girl or boy may acquire secondary sex characteristics of a mature man or woman.
7. The Pancreas: The pancreas gland is situated between the stomach and the small intestine. It secretes two hormones insulin and glucogon which work against each other to maintain a_ balanced level of sugar in our blood. In case the balance is disturbed by the over secretion or under secretion of these two hormones, it leads to the excess or deficiency of sugar in the blood. While excess of sugar causes diabetes, a disease of the pancreas, the deficiency of sugar results in hypoglycemia a condition of chronic fatigue.
8. The Gonads : The gonads are the sex glands which are different in different sexes called testes in males and ovaries in females. These sex glands work with the adrenal glands to control sexuzl development as well as sex-role behaviour. In the male the primary sex hormones produced by the testes are known as androgens. The androgens are responsible for the development of the males secondary sex characteristics like growth of beard and moustache, maturity of genitals end change in terms of distinguished male voice. In the female the primary sex hormones produced by the ovaries are known as estrogens. They are responsible for the development of female secondary sex characteristics like development of breasts, maturity of the genitals and the reproductive apparatus. In addition to this estrogens also affect the sex drive and help in pregnancy. child-birth and oursing the new-born infant.
In addition to their respective primary sex hormones—androgens and estrogens; the male and female sex glands are found to secrete some amount of estrogens and androgens. In other words both men and women produce both male and female sex hormones. This is why every male has some female in him and every female has some male in her. However, an excess amount of estrogens in the males may result in their feminization. Similarly, an excess amount of androgens in the females can develop masculine tendencies and aggressive and dominant sex role behaviour in the females. The question now may arise as to what makes aman masculine ? Is it the relative absence of female hormones? The answer lies in the relative higher level of the male hormone, testosterone in the males. It ts that hormone which counteracts the effects of his female hormones and makes him more masculine.
The functioning of all the endocrine or ductless glands, discussed above, exercise a great influence on various aspects of the growth and development of human personality. The under activity or Over activity of these glands caused by the deficiency or excess of the hormones secreted by them affects not only the growth and development of an individual but also his entire behaviour. A slight imbalance of the hormones may cause unusual restlessness, anxiety and weakness. Our physical strength. moral, thinking and reasoning powers and decision-making ability all depend upon the health of the glands. “These hormones” as Gardner Murphy puts, ‘may be regarded as bathing the nervous system, including the brain, and all the organs of the body in their own appropriate chemical juices.”’ (1968 p. 52)
in this way. endocrine system besides performing its own functions through the secretion of hormones by the different glands, may also be found to work in close cooperation with the nervous system for the development of the typical personality characteristics in an individual. In short. the biological make-up of an individual (which is determined. to a great extent, by the functioning of his nervous system and endocrine glands) is responsible for all his characteristics and ‘why’ as well as ‘how’ of his entire behaviour.
SUMMARY
Behaviour in all its forms and shapes have definitely a biological. or physiological base. There are two important and distinct body mechanisms namely the nervous system and the endocrine system that bear strong influence over human behaviour.
The human nervous system can be divided into two parts—(i) the central nervous system comprising the brain and the spinal cord and (ii) the pertpheral nervous system.
The brain has three main divisions—(a) the forebrain consisting of thalamus, hypothalamus and the cerebrum, (b) the midbrain, a sort of bridge connecting the forebrain and hindbrain and (c) the hindbrain composed of the medulla, pons and the cerebellum. Our brain as a whole with all its different structures, helps, in performing a number of mental functions. However, certain specific mental functions are performed specifically by some or other parts of the brain. This characteristic is named as localization of the brain functions.
Spinal Cord lies within the backbone. It has two functions—(i) works as a channel of communication from the brain and to the brain and (ii) works as an organ for controlling and performing reflex acts.
The peripheral nervous system consisting of a network of nerves, lying outside the bony case of central nervous system, is sub-divided Into two parts—the somatic system and the autonomic system.
In the somatic system sensory and motor nerves both are found running to and from the sense receptors muscles and the surface of the body. The autonomic nervous system (with its two divisions, the sympathetic system and the para-sympathetic system) consists of only motor nerves leading from the central nervous system to regulate the body’s internal processes.
The Endocrine system works quite automatically as a coordinating and controlling agency of the body’s internal mechanisms by means of some specific body structures called endocrine or ductless glands. These glands are known to secrete specific chemical substances named as hormones. The under activity or over activity of these glands, caused by the deficiency or excess of the hormones secreted, affects the entire personality make-up of an individual. The location and functioning of these glands may be summarized as under:
| Gland | Location | Hormones | Main funtion |
| Peneal | Within brain | Serotonin and Melatonin | To regulate the timing of biological function |
| Pituitary (master gland) | Base of the brain | Six types of hormones like tocin, vasopressin, etc. | Affects the functioning of all other glands |
| Thyroid | Base of the neck in front of the wind pipe | Thyroxin | Controls buddies oxidatation process |
| Parathyroid (for a number) | Back surface of the thyroid | Parathormone | Counterbalance says activity of the thyroid |
| Thymus | Within the chest | Disease defending hormones | Regulates lymphoid systems |
| Adrenal ( two in number) | Surrounds kidneys | Adrenaline and adrenocortical | Meet emergency situations and regulate specific sex roles |
| Pancreas | Between the stomach and small intestine | Insulin and glucagon | Balance sugar level in the blood |
| Gonads | Testes in male and ovaries in females | Androgens and Estrogens (sex hormones) | Controls sex behavior |
References and Suggested Readings
Berman. L; The Glands Regulating Personality, New York: The MacMillian Co.
Boring, E.C., Longfield, H.S. & Weld. H.P. (Ed,); Foundations of Psychology, New York: John Wiley & Sons, 1948.
Carlson, B.R; Physiology of Behaviour, Boston: Allyn and Bacon, 1977.
Desiderato, Otello, er al; Investigating BehaviourPrinciples of Psychology, New York: Harper & Row, 1976.
Deutsch, J.A. & Deutsch, D; Psysiological Psychology, Homewood, Illinois: Dorsey Press, 1973.
Gardner, E; Fundamentals of Neurology (6th Ed.), Philadelphia: Saunders, 1975.
Jennings, A o The Biological Basis of Human Nature, London; Faber and Faber Lid., 1930.
Kimble, D.P.; Psychology as a Biological Science (2nd ed.) Santa Monica Calif: – Goodyear, ‘1977.
Levin, M. .J.; Psychology: A Biographical Approach, New York: Mc-Graw Hill, 1978
Lewin, R; The Nervous System, New York: Anchor, 1974.
Lubar, J.F.; Readings on the Biological Foundations of Behaviour, Columbus, Ohio: Collegiate, 1975.
Milner, P.M.; Physiological Psychology, New York: Holt, Rinehart & Winston, 1970.
Murphy, G: An Introduction to Psychology (na Indian reprint), New Delhi: Oxford IBH, 1968.
Schneider, A M. & Tarshis. B; An Introduction to Physiological Psychology, New York: Random House, 1975.
Thompson, R.F.: Introduction to Bio-psychology, San Francisco, Albion, 1973, Wittrock, MC. etal; The Human Brain, Englewood Cliffs, New Jersey; Prentice Hall, 1977.
CHAPTER 5
HEREDITY AND ENVIRONMENT
There are countless species on this earth. Every species is unique in itself and can be easily distinguished through some specific characteristics. We can, thus safely identify a rabbit, peacock, cow, crow, antelope and a tiger. The members of one species detinitely resemble each other but do not bear semblance to other species and possess unique characteristics that are common to their own species.
It is true that all cows appear alike on account of their species —specific characteristics—yet we are able to distinguish our own cow from so Many Other cows and our own brother and sister from a group of children. This is because of the fact that, besides the species. —specific characteristics,—individual members of the species display a family resemblance. A child, resembles his’her brothers. sisters parents, grandparents and other members of his/her family much more than he/she would to others not related to him’her and hence can easily be distinguished from other children.
However, the offspring of one set of parents may not necessarily resemble their brothers or sisters or for that matter even their parents. They may be unlike each other in so many ways. Although each organism has so many similarities on account of the species — specific characteristics and family resemblance—it may differ widely on so many grounds and this is what makes every organism a unique creation in itself.
The question is, what makes an individual a unique creation in itself? Why does or doesn’t he resemble the members of his species, his parent organisms and the organisms produced by his parents? The answers for such similarities and variations pertaining to the individuality of an organism are contained in the terms heredity and environment. Let us try to see what contributions they have made.
What is heredity?
Heredity refers to a biological mechanism as a result of which a child obtains something in terms of specific species or ancestral characteristics by which he can trace his individuality from his ancestral stock through his parents.
Heredity, thus contributes something in the form of inheritance just as we inherit land, money and other assets or liabilities from our
parents and forefathers. Now the question may arise, when does a child inherit the specific ancestral characteristics. Let us try to answer this from the Science of genetics.
The science of genetics is concerned with the way certain characteristics are transmitted through the species and through a family to an individual organism. From a genetic angle this transmission definitely occurs at the time of the conception of the child in the womb of the mothers. Conception of child is in fact a beginning of a new life. The mechanism of conception is explained below.
The male and female reproductive organs produce germ cells. In the male their testes produce the male germ cells, the spermatozoa, while in the female, their ovaries produce the female germ cells, the ova. Normally one ovum or egg is produced in each menstrual cycle (about 28 days) by the ovaries of 4a normal woman. The production of the sperm by the testes in the male is not so confined and limited. Normally, they produce 10 million sperms per day per gram of testicular tissue from the onset of puberty till death.
Conception is the result of the union of these male and female cells and in the natural way this union occuss at the time of copulating between a man and a woman. Here asa result of coitus, the male germ ceils (millions in number) usually come in contact with the female germ cells. The male germ cells are deposited at the mouth of the uterus and try to make contact with the single ovum. Out of so many spermatozoa, in a normal case, only one sperm (single male cell) is able to establisn contact with the ovum (single female cell) situated in the ovarian duct of the mother and makes it fertile. The fertilized ovum is technically known as zygote the starting single cell structure of a new life.
Human life thus starts from a single cell produced by the union of two germ cells, one from each parent and gradually develops into a complicated composition of trillions of body cells and yet containing the same genetic material as was inherited at the time of conception.
The zygote i.e., fertilized ovum consists of a semi-fluid mass called Cytop lasm and within the cytoplasm there is a nucleus which contains the chromosomes. Chromosomes always exist in pairs. In human zygote there ase 23 pairs of chromosomes (46 individual chronosomes)* 23 of which are contributed by the father and 23 by the mother and this is why for the transmission of herditary characteristics both mother and father are said to be equal partners.
Chromosomes possess a thread like structure and are made up of vety small units called genes. It is estimated that there are more than 1000 genes in each human chromosome cell. Consequently the possibility regarding the combination of 30,000 characteristics each from mother and father, may help us to understand well the untqueness of each individual.
The number of chromosomes varies from species to species. For example. dogs have 78 chromosomes, horses 64, cows 60, fruitflies 8. and peas 7.
Regardless of their very minute size, the composition of genes has been determined in terms of “DNA” and “RNA”. DNA stands for deoxyribonucleic acid and is said to be a basic chemical substance primarily responsible for genetic inheritance. RNA stands for ribonucleic acid and it acts as an active assistant to DNA for carrying out the genetic code message from parent to offspring.
Thus, what we get from our ancestral stock through our parents at the time of fertilization of the ovum of the mother by the sperm of the father is in the form of chromosomes, genes and their respective classical constituents. This inheritance at the time of conception makes up the native capita! and endowment of an individual that is present with him in the form of the sum total of the traits potentially present in the fertilized ovum and it is this that is known as the heredity of an individual.
The role of genes
In search of hereditary functions of genes, through his experiments on garden peas and fruitflies, Gregor Mendel hypothesized that some genes are dominant and others recessive. Like chromosomes, the genes also occur in pairs. Each of the pairs is donated by one of the parents. An offspring thus may be found to derive a gene pair in one of the following forms
—a dominant gene from one of the parents and recessive gene from the other.
—dominant genes from both the parents.
—recessive genes from both the parents.
In simple meaning a dominant gene must exhibit his dominance over the recessive ones. For example if one parent furnishes a gene for brown eyes (known to be dominant) and the other providesa gene for blue (a recessive gene), the offspring will have brown eyes (characteristic of the dominant gene).
However the fact that a particular trait is recessive in one generation in no way rules out its appearance in the future. For example in the above example of the mutation between brown and blue genes resulting into brown eyes, a recessive blue gene lies in wait. If that offspring is copulated with someone with another gene for blue eyes (even if he or she may not possess blue eyes) their offspring. the third generation, might have blue eyes.
The role of genes specified as above, may thus provide us a solid support (besides the chance pairing of 23 chromosomes and 3,000 genes from the egg and sperm cells) for explaining the variations and dissimilarities in height, weight. intelligence, blood type, eye colour, and the colour and texture of the skin and hair and similar Other important characteristics found in the parents and their offsprings as well as within the offsprings of the same parents.
Determination of sex (boy or girl)
The first twenty-two pairs of chromosomes are called autosomes. These chromosomes determine the development of most of our body structures and characteristics. The remaining twenty-third nair consists of the sex chromosomes. These sex chromosomes decide the individual’s sex and other sex-linked characteristics.
There are two different types of sex chromosomes X chromosome (usually big in size) and Y chromosome (comparatively smaller than X). In the male child one member of the sex chromosome is X chromosome (contributed by the mother). In the female child both of these sex chromosomes, one from each parent, are X chromosomes.
All eggs have X chromosomes, but sperm cells may contain either type. Therefore, the mother’s role in the determination of sex is quite neutral. At the time of conception she can contribute only one type of sex chromosome i.e. X chromosome. Much depends upon the possibility of the type of sex chromosomes X or Y that may be transmitted by the snerm cell of the father. If X chromosome is transmitted the child will be female and if Y chromosome is transmitted it will result in a male child. In this way, itis not the mother but the father who is biologically more countable for determination of the sex of the child.
| X X Mother | X Y Father |
| XX Y Daughter | X Y X YSon |
The twins mechanism
Life is the result of the union of two cells—male and female. In anormal case when a single ovum is fertilized by sperm cell of the male, it results in the birth of a single offspring. However, in some cases, this normal function is disturbed and there are cases of multiple births —the birth of two or more offsprings at a time. The birth of twins falls in such a category of multiple births. There are two distinct types of twins namely identical twins and fraternal twins.
1 Identical Twins : In the process of the fertilization of the ovum by the sperm, the ovum is made to split into two parts. In a normal process these parts are again united. Sometimes, however it so? happens that these two split parts fail to unite together. The result ig that each part is developed into a complete individual in the form of the pair of identical twins. The twins produced, are thus, termed identical on account of the identical nature of the genetic material (exactly the same chromosomes and genes etc.) They are found to possess almost the same somatic structure and characteristics and are definitely of the same sex. From the hereditary angle, they are supposed to be the nearest ones as far as the equal transmission of hereditary stock to the offsprings is concerned.
2. Fraternal Twins: Normally in each menstrual cycle the female Ovaries produce a single ovum that can be fertilized by a sperm cell. In an exceptional case, two ova may be produced simultaneously and be fertilized at the same time by two different sperms. It may then result in the conception of two individuals who may be grown simultaneously in the womb of the mother. These individuals are known as fraternal twins. They havea different combination of chromosomes and genes as both ova are fertilized by different sperms. Fraternal twins, therefore are sure to differ in many traits. From the hereditary point of view, they are not as near as the identical twins are, but definitely nearer than the siblings (real brothers and sisters), cousins and other relatives. Also it is not essential for them to belong to the same sex. They may have similar or opposite sex.
What is environment
‘“‘Environment’’, according to Woodworth (1948, p. 156), ‘‘covers all the outside factors that have acted on the individual since he began life.”
At the time of beginning of one’s life 1.e. fertilization of the ovum by the sperm, what happens to the child, is the transmission of ancestral traits and characteristics through chromosomes, genes and their chemical substances. The heredity, thus plays its game only at the time of conception. It does not contribute any thing after conception and does not come into the picture at all before the fertilization of the ovum. What happens afterwards, after the conception, is the game of environment. It affects the individual, his bodily structure, and all of his personality make-up and behaviour.
Environment forces can be categorised into two major heads
1. Internal environment and
2. External environment.
The environment received by the individual from his conception till his birth jin the womb of the mother (a period of about 9 months in the case of human beings) is called an internal environment. In this environment, the embryo receives the nutrition through the blood stream of his mother. The physical and mental health of the mother including his habits, attitudes and interests etc., all constitute the inner surroundings Or internal environment that affects the growth and development of the individual along with his emerging behaviour in future. After his birth what the child gets in terms of environmental influences is purely external in nature. These influences can be further divided into two parts, physical and social or cultural. The physical surroundings
and the stimuli like the earth, rivers, mountains, the type of weather and climatic conditions, the food we eat, the water we drink etc., fall into the category of physical environment while the parents, members of the family, friends and classmates, neighbours, teachers, the members of the community and society, the means of mass com munication and recreation, religious places, clubs, libraries etc., are included in those forces that provide the individual his social and cultural environment for the shaping of his personality and behaviour.
The role of heredity or environment in the development of personality and behaviour
What part heredity or environment plays in influencing the growth and development of the individual, his behaviour and other personae lity characteristics has been the subject of great controversy and extensive research all through the ages for psychologists. For tendering explanations regarding the individuality and existing variations among the individuals, they quite often resort to the studies as under.
Selective Breeding: In this method of studying inheritance. members of some specific species high or low in a particular trait copulate with other members of the species in the same position and then the genetic character of the so-produced offspring is made the subject of study.
Gregor Mendel (1822-1884) was the first to use the method of selective breeding in the investigation of the inherited traits by crossing different types of peas, a fast growing, sexually reproducing plant.
The method of selective breeding has been very useful to agriculturisis, tree planters, and commercial breeders of live-stock for improving the varieties and yields. In performing such experiments, they usually arrange selective breeding through the copulating of the members of the species that excel in the desired trait such as size. The difference between the average sizes of-the males and females in the parental generation and the average sizes of the males and females of offspring (the selection gain) are noted and then the largest offspring are bred and so on. In these experiments care is taken for maintainang the environmental factors as constant as possible. Therefore any isignificant difference between the traits of the purental generation and their subsequent offspring can be sufely attributed to heredity.
The method of selective breeding for studying inheritance although found quite useful in the case of lower planis and animals. has not been found practicable in the case of human beings. This 16 because, human copulating cannot be used for experimental purposes and one human generation lasts for so many years. However, the naturally available results of (the selective breeding in the form inbred population the tribes or isolated places where marriage and copulating is permitted within the same blood) provide many smpor tant clues for the hereditary transmission of so many traits, With the development in Genetic Science regarding artificial insemination, test tube babies and the possibility of producing a body directly from the body of a human being without sex or fertilization, etc., we may place high hopes for experimental results of the selective breedings in humans.
Twin and Family Studies
For studying the impact of heredity or environment on the development and personality characteristics of individuals, psychologists have also tried to take the help of twin and family studies.
Twins, especially identical twins, are supposed to be identical in hereditary potential. Fraternal twins, siblings, cousins, family members and other blood relations are also supposed to form a group of individuals who show a gradual diminishing resemblance about heredity characteristics but are definitely nearer to the people not related at all. Generally these studies of twins and other types of family relations often use concordance or coefficient of correlation, to ascertain whether a certain characteristic is the result of heredity or environment.
In carrying out studies of twins and family, psychologists have adopted the following approach:
(1) A pair of identical twins have been separated and reared apart in different environmental surroundings. The results of such experiments have sprung in favour of both heredity and environment as significant or non-significant differences have been found to exist in One or the other case.
(2) Identical twins have been compared to fraternal twins, siblings, cousins other relatives and individuals not having any blood relationship to ascertain whether or not the affinity in terms of blood relationship causes affinity in terms of physical and other characteristics.
(3) Families have been studied for generations past from the point of the unique presence or absence of some personality attributes. It has been found that family members and their descendants show a remarkable resemblance. For example, a family known to be rich and of repute may consistently display healthy signs of wealth and intelligence while a family of ill-repute may exhibit a record of the characterless, poor and defamed persons. Similarly many of the abnormalities and diseases have been found to perpetuate from generation to generation and consequently heredity has been made responsible for the subsequent development and behaviour of an individual.
However, from all types of experiments going on to support the role of heredity or environment, it may be easily concluded that the findings of these experiments can be interpreted either way. In the real sense, it is very difficult to” have proper experimentation for studying hereditary or environmental influences as shown as follows:
To study the impact of environment we have to take individuals with the same heredity and then study their differences by keeping them in different environments. Similarly for studying the impact of heredity, environmental factor needs to be made constant.
In actual experimentation it is impossible to get individuals having the same heredity (possessing exactly the same genes). However, if we take the case of identical twins (by assuming they are of similar hereditary stock), we cannot study the impact of environmental influences right from the time of their conception. Hence it ts difficult to make the heredity factor as constant.
On the other hand, it is also impossible to get the environmental factors as constant because it is very difficult to provide exactly the same environment for different individuals. Even a mother cannot show equal amount of love and affection to her own children.
What then is contributed by heredity and what by environment?
It is difficult to find an appropriate answer to the above question due to the following reasons:
(1) After the conception of a child we are unable to pin-point with accuracy whether a particular behaviour or trait emanates from our heredity or from our environment.
(2) With all the available resources at hand and experiments conducted we still cannot say with certainty what type of behaviour or trait is influenced most by heredity and what by environment.
In human beings, hereditary factors are predominantly accountable for the behaviour and characteristics as under:
Reflex and instinctive behaviour, characteristics like blood type, finger prints, eye colour, the colour and texture of the skin and _ hair, defective genes and chromosomal abnormalities, Schizophrenia, tuberculosis, cancer, hemophilia, etc.
Similarly, we can say that the environmental factors are predominantly accountable for the interests, attitudes, aptitudes, habits, temperaments, etiquettes and manners, social and culture norms, etc.
However, for most of the characteristics and traits including our somatic structure, and physical, mental, social and emotional makeup, it is the interaction between the individual’s genetically determined characteristics and its environment which is said to be more res~ ponsible for making the individual-what he is at a particular time. Speaking in a true sense, both heredity and environment are said to be jointly responsible for the acquisition of any type of behaviour and development of any personality characteristics in human beings.
The respective roles of heredity and environment become clear when we compare the individual’s growth and development with that of a tree. Whereas the maximum and minimum growth of a healthy treo is determined by its genes but exactly how tall it will grow within this range can only be determined by the environment soil, water, manure and sunlight it gets.
in a similar way our heredity endowments provide us the native capital to start the Journey of life. How successful we will be 1n life depends both on the potential value of our native capital and the opportunities and circumstances favourable or unfavourable we get from our environment for reaching the maximum out of our starting capital. The future outcome as a result of interaction with one’s environment are thus perfectly hidden m one’s inherited genetic character. Genetic factors, although influenced, directed and even surpassed in some cases by the environmental forces, play quite a substantial role in providing an approximate range for the minimum and maximum height reached in terms of the personality traits but how much height one will achieve along this range again depends upon the cooperation one receives from one’s environment.
Therefore, it is always advisable to take into account the sources like one’s heredity, his environment and the inseparable interaction between one’s heredity and environmental factors for determining the etiology of one’s behaviour or development of some specific personality traits.
SUMMARY
Species—specific characteristics, family resembiance and similarities as well as variations pertaining to the individuality of an orgi.nism can be explained in terms of the contributions of heredity and environment.
Heredity refers to a biological mechanism that is responsible for the transfer of the species—specific and ancestral characteristics from generation to generation with the help of immediate parents at the time of one’s conception in the mother’s womb.
Human hife starts from a single cell produced by the union of two germ cells, one from each parent and gradually develops into a complicated composition of trillions of body cells. Within each cell there are 46 chromosomes, arranged in 23 pairs, except for the reproductive cells which have only 23: chromosomes, in each. A human being receives 23 chromosomes from each parent. Within each chromosome are about 1000 genes. These genes contain two chemical substances, named DNA and RNA which are said to be responsible for carrying out the genetic code message from parent to offspring.
Transference of the traits was first scientifically studied by Gregor Mendel, an Austrian Monk, through his experiments on garden peas. His works Jed to the knowledge of dominant and recesSive genes in explaining the hereditary transmission of traits and the related facts about mutation inheritance.
Sex is determined by the X and Y sex chromosomes. All female eggs have only one type of sex chromosomes (i.e. X) but sperm cells of the male may contain both types X and Y. At the time of conception, therefore, the mother can contribute the same X chromosome
while the father can contribute either X or Y. Ifhe is transmitting X chromosome, then it results in a girl or if he transmits Y chromosomes, a boy is produced.
Environment consists of all those factors that influencé the growth and development of the individual from his conception onwards, These factors can be categorized as internal factors (operative in the womb of the mother from conception till birth) and external factors in the form of physical, social and cultural environment that surrounds the individual from his birth till death.
The role of heredity and environment in the development of personality and behaviour have been extensively searched in the form of twins and family studies (comparisons of genetically similar individuals) and experiments on selective breeding (copulating of males with particular traits to females with the same traits, in order to study the offspring).
The results of all such studies and experiments have failed to establish a clear cut role of either heredity or environment in explaining the presence of particular behaviour or trait in an individual. What behaviours are learned or what are inherited is a controversial question that can only be answered through a reasonable understanding that one’s behaviour or development of a specific personality trait is always a result of the interaction of the environmental forces on the genetically inherited characteristics.
References and Suggested Readings
Craig, G.J., Human Development, Englewood Cliffs, New Jersey: Prentice-Hail, 1976. Gordon, I.J., Human Development, Glenview, Ilinois: Scott & Co. 1965. Halacy, D.S. Jr., Genetic Revolution, New York: New American Library, 1974. Kallman, F.J., Heredity in Health and Mental Disorder, New York: Norton, 1953.
Kaplan, A.R., (Ed ); Human Behaviour Genetics, Springfield Hlinois: Thomas, 1976.
McClearn, G.E. & De Fries, J.C., Introduction to Behavioural Genetics, Sa® Francisco: W.H. Freeman & Co; 1973.
McGraw, M.B., Growth, New York: Appleton-Century, 1935,
Money. 3. & Ehshadt, A.. Man and Woman, Boy and Girl, Waltimore: Jobs Hopkins University Press, 1972.
Newman, H.H., Freeman, F.N. and Holzinger, K J., Twins: A study of HevedityY and Environment, Chicago University Press, 1937.
Stern c., Principles of Human Genetics, San Francisco: W.H. Freeman & Co. 197
Stockard, C.R., The Physical Basis of Personality, London: George Alicea & Unwin, 1931.
Woodworth, R.S. and Marquis, D.G., Psychology, (Sth Ed.) New York: Henry Holt & Co., 1948,
CHAPTER 6
INSTINCTS AND EMOTIONS
What causes the organisms to behave in a specific way in a Specific situation. has been a subject of serious study for psychologists, From this point of view, the role of heredity and environment has also been fully explored. It has been found that there are certain specific innate and inborn modes of behaviour that may be exhibited by the organisms without any prior training or experience. Baby chicks, for example. do not have to learn to peck at seeds. A mother sparrow instinctively builds a nest, lays eggs, searches for food, and ceturns to the nest to feed her voung, the horses and buffaloes begin to swim just a few days after their birth, an infant cries for milk and sucks the nipple of the mother, an adulescent is attracted towards the members of the opposite sex usually without learning or experiencing such acts from his parents or environment. In psychology, behaviour of this type has been named as instinctive behaviour and the innate or inherited tendencies or the capacity and predisposition responsible for such behaviour patterns are known as instincts.
Understanding and defining instincts –
From time immemorial, the term instinct has been used for an innate disposition or characteristic that makes an organism to respond or to act in such a way that helps him in his adjustment:or adaptation including the survival of his species. Consequently instinctive behaviour has been understood as an unlearned species-specific behaviour patterns.
During the nineteenth century when Charles Darwin presented his theory that humans are linked to other species, it was also concluded that like their relatives, the behaviour of human beings is motivated by instincts. Inspired by the views of Charles Darwin in 1890, William James. a Harvard psychologist tried to provide a long list of the human instincts and defined the term instinct in the following Way:
‘Instinct is usually defined as the faculty of acting in such a way as to produce certain ends, without foresight of the ends, and without previous education in the performance.” (James, 1969, p. 392)
In 1906, the great American Socio-psychologist, William Mc Dougall noted that all behaviour is the result of instincts. He added five more instincts to the list of William James making the total as 14. He tried to define the term instinct as “an inherited or innate psycho-physical disposition which determines its possessor to perceive, and to pay aitention to objects of a certain class, to experience an emotional excitement of a particular quality upon perceiving such an object and to act in regard to it in a particular manner or at least, lo experience an impulse to such action” (McDougall, 1946, p. 25).
The definitions given by William James and McDougall may lead us to conclude that:
(i) Instincts are innate and inborn tendencies or psychological dispositions.
(ii) They do not require any sort of previous experience or training for their expression.
(iii) A particular instinct as an inborn tendency makes the organism:
(a) to notice or to perceive and to pay attention to certain specific kinds of things; (b) to arouse some feeling of excitement and specific interest after taking notice or perceiving such things; and (c) to act or have an impulse to action which finds expression in a specific mode of behaviour in relation to that specific thing.
From the above we may deduce that an instinct is found to possess three aspects—cognitive (perceiving or knowing), affective (feeling) and conative (doing or acting).
(i) Every instinct leads toward certain ends as it serves some specific purpose or purposes. For example, instinct of escape helps to escape danger, fight or combat to get rid of the enemies, instinct of sex to preserve the species and so on. In this way instinctive behaviour safeguards and ensures the welfare of the organism.
(ii) Although the instinctive behaviour, as pointed above leads to
an useful end, yet, it does not necessarily involve any foresight of that useful end. |
In the coming times, Sigmund Freud and his followers like Adler and Jung hypothesized that the instincts are the ultimate causes of all activities. They brought in the field some new instincts like Eros (the life instinct), the thanatos (the death instinct), the will to power, selfactualization and herd instinct.
With the adoption of the instinctive theory for explaining bdehaviour by more and more psychologists, the number of instincts gradually grew to more than thousands. It led to a great confusion in terms of the meaning and types of the instincts and with the advent of behaviourism in 1920, there emerged an anti-instinct revolt.
Opposition to the concept of instinct was based on two points. First, patterns of instinctive behaviour must be common to members
of species. Second, the behaviour must be complex and include activity of the entire organism, not just a single reflex behaviour like an eye blink or knee jerk.
In recent times there have been quite a lot of research for finding out the facts about the instinctive behaviour patterns of human beings. It has been found that contrary to the behaviour of lower organisms. it is very difficult to distinguish between learned behaviour patterns and instinctive ones in humans. There are no behaviours common to every member of the human species. Human infants cannot walk. feed themselves and perform other basic functions relatively independent of any prior learning or training. Sex behaviour, involves a natural urge in terms of attraction for the opposite sex and sex appetite is described as a quite complex behaviour pattern requiring a set of specific skills and learning experiences. In this way. human behaviour cannot be adjudged as purely instinctive or purely learned behaviour. Obviously, it is the result of the interaction between one’s individual environment and his biological structure and dispositions. The instincts alongwith the mechanism of instinctive behaviour may thus provide an essential capacity and predispositions (in terms of a specific level of maturity) to acquire specific behaviour patterns as a result of some adequate training and experiences.
Instincts and reflex actions
What are reflex actions? The action like the closing of the eyelid when something threatens the eye; the contraction of the pupils when there is bright light; the jerking of the hand when it touches something very hot or very cold etc., are known as reflex actions. Such reflex acts are almost automatic and mechanical in nature. They are innate or inborn as they can be carried out by the organism without any prior training or experience. As emphasized earlier in this article the four of this text while dealing with physiological basis of our behaviour, these reflex actions are directly operated by our spinal cord without bringing our brain into the picture. A sa result they always bring a prompt and immediate fixed response to a specific stimulus.
Similarities and differences with instinctive behaviour
The resemblance between instinct and reflex actions can be summarized as under: ,
(i) Both are innate and inborn,
(ii) Both involve fixed type of behaviour in a specified situation,
(iii) They are not individual traits but racial characteristics applicable to all living organisms.
(iv) Both are directed to the attainment of useful ends and safeguard as well as ensure the welfare of the organism.
On account of the above similarities, they are often confused with ach other. However, the following points of difference may help in drawing a line of demarcation between them.
| Instinctive acts | Reflex actions |
| 1. An instinctive behavior involves all the cognitive, affective and canative aspect of the behavior | 1. In a reflex action only conative aspect of the behavior is involved |
| 2. An instinctive act to comparison with reflex act is very complex mode of reaction of a organism to stimulus receive from the environment | 2. Reflex at represent quite simple automatic response of an organism |
| 3. Instinctive acts are guided by the brain | 3. Reflex action are directly operated by the spinal cord without consulting the brain |
| 4. Instinctive behavior it’s not so prompt and immediate ask reflex acts they may be prolonged | 4. Reflex act s are most prompt and immediate they are not prolonged |
| 5. Instinctive behavior can be improved or modified by experience and training | 5. The reflex act s like sneezing blinking of eyes and so on remain the same. |
Classification of instincts
Instincts have been classified in a variety of ways by different psychologists The list supplied by McDougall in terms of the 14 instincts still holds its ground. McDougall also insisted that an instinctive behaviour is associated with some emotional experience. Below, we reproduce this list alongwith the inherent meaning and the emotion accompanied with each of these instincts.
| Instinct | Meaning | Emotions accompanying |
| 1. Instinct of flight or escape | Innate tendency to run away from danger or possibility of danger to a place of shelter and safety | Emotional fear |
| 2. Instinct of combat pugnacity | Innate tendency to fight and struggle in order to secure what is an organism wants or to secure progress or success in any direction | Emotions of anger |
| 3. Instinct of repulsion | Innate response to a distasteful we’re a nasty object by going away from it or removing it from the field of one sensation on perception | Motions of disgust |
| 4. Instinct of curiosity | Innate urge to know about new things and phenomena | Emotions of Wonder |
| 5. Parental instinct | Innate urge in the organism to protect their young offspring to love them or to supply them with food | Motions of love and caring |
| 6. Instinct of appeal | Innate urge and organism to protect itself but raising its voice for help from its fellow beings. | Emotional of distress |
| 7. Instinct of construction | Innate urge we’re natural tendency to construct something | Emotions are creativity |
| 8. And think of acquisition | Innate urge to collect or hoard articles of once owned interest needs | Emotions of ownership |
| 9. Instinct of gregariousness | Innate urge the compels human being to live in groups for society or club s and enjoy family and social life | Emotions of loneliness |
| 10 instinct of sex or copulating | Innate urge to have a sex relationship with suitable partner. | Emotion of lust |
| 11. Instinct of self assertion | Innate egoistic tendency and individual to show in one way or the other that he is better than others | Emotion of elation or positive self feeling |
| 12. Instinct of abasement or submission | Innate urge compelling an individual to remain submissive and to follow others | Emotion of feeling |
| 13. Instinct of food seeking | Innate urge compelling and organism to make attempt for getting food and to devour it | Emotions of appetite |
| 14. Instinct of laughter | Innate urge found any human beings for maintaining their health and vigour by counteracting the evil influence of anger and similar other negative emotion | Emotions of amusement |
EMOTIONS
Defining Emotion
Etymologically the word emotion is derived from the Latin word ‘emovere’ which means ‘to stir up’, ‘to agitate’ or ‘to exite’ Accordingly, Woodworth clarifies that emotion is a ‘moved’ or stirred-up’ state of an organism. It is a stirred up state of feeling that is the way it appears to the indiv:dual himself. [t is a disturbed muscular and glandular activity that is the way it appears to an external observer (1945, p. 410).
Crow and Crow conveys that an emotion “‘is an affective experience that accompanies generalized inner adjustment and mental and physiological stirred-up states in the individual, and that shows itself in his overt behaviour.” (1973 p. 83).
McDougall (1949) considering instinct as an innate tendency maintains that an emotion is an affective experience that one undergoes during an instinctive excitement. For example when a child perceives a bull coming towards him (cognition) he experiences an
affective experience in the form-of the arousal of accompanied emotion of fear and consequently tries to run away (Conative aspect of one’s behaviour). McDougall discovered 14 basic instincts and concluded that each and every emotion, whatever it may be is, the product of some instinctive behaviour. The type of emotion experienced by the individual through a particular instinctive behaviour can be understood through provided earlier in this article
Taking an eclectic view of the nature of emotional experience Charles G. Morris defines emotion as ‘‘a complex affective experience that involves diffuse pkysiological changes and can be expressed overtly in characteristics behaviour patterns.” (1979 p. 386).
Thus, whatever, may be the terminology used by all these different writers and psychologists, their definitions tend to describe emotions as some sort of fezlings or affective experiences which are characterized by some physiological changes that generally lead them to perform some or the other types of behavioural acts.
Characteristics of emotions
Emotions have certain characteristics which can be described as under:
1. Emotions are universal — prevalent in every living organism at all stages of development from infancy to old age.
2. Emotions are personal and thus differ from individual to individual.
3. Same emotions can be aroused by a number of different stimuli —objects and situations.
4. Emotions rise abruptly but subside slowly. An emotion once aroused, tends to persist and leave behind emotional hang over.
5. Emotions have the quality of displacement. For example an angry reaction caused by a rebuke by the boss can find expression in the beating of the children at home.
6. An emotion can give birth to a number of other similar emotions.
7. There is a negative correlation between the upsurge of emotions and intelligence. Reasoning and sharp intellect restrain the sudden upsurge of emotions. On the other hand, emotional upsurge adversely affects the process of reasoning and thinking powers.
8. The emotional experiences are associated with one or the other instincts or biological drives.
9. The core of an emotion is feeling, which is aroused on account of the cognition of a perceived stimulus, giving birth to a sort of impulsive act or urge to do.
10. Every emotional experience involves many physical and physiological changes in the organism. Some of the changes which express themselves in overt behaviour are easily observable. Examples of such changes are the bulge of the eyes, the flush of the face, the flow of tears, the pulse rate, the beating of the heart, the choke in the voice,
increased perspiration, the butterflies in the stomach, the goose flesh sensations as the body’s. hair stand on end, the fleeing from the situation or the attack on the emotion arousing stimulus. In addition to these easily observable changes there are internal physiological changes. Examples of such changes are changes in Circulation of blood, the impact on digestive system and the changes in the functioning of some glands like adrenal glands etc.
Kinds of emotions
Emotions in general, can be categorized as positive emotions and negative emotions.
Unpleasant emotions like fear, anger, jealousy which are harmful to the well-being and development of an individual are termed as negative emotions while the pleasant emotions like amusement, love, curiosity, joy and happiness which are helpful and essential to the normal development are termed as positive emotions.
However, by their nature of positiveness or negativeness it should not be concluded that experiencing of positive emotions is always good and that of negative emotions is always bad. While weighing this impact we should also keep in mind the other factors like (i) the frequency and intensity of emotional experience and (i/) the situation. occasion and the nature of the stimulus which arouses the emotion. Excess of everything is bad. Emotions with too much intensity and frequency. whether positive or negative bring harmful effects. On the other hand the so called negative emotions may prove very essential for human welfare. For example, the emotion of fear prepares an individual to face the danger ahead. The child who has no emotion of fear is sure to get injured because he has not learnt to save himself against a possible danger.
The identification and measurement of emotions
There are a number of positive and negative emotions that may be exhibited by individuals from time to time. What type of specific emotion, at a particular moment is being exhibited by an individual and the nature or intensity of that emotion has been a subject of extensive research. Since the effects of emotion on behaviour can be measured, but emotion itself is not easy to analyse objectively, the proper identification and measurement of emotions has proved a tough and challenging task. However, some significant clues in this direction may be provided by the use of the following methods.
1. Introspective Reports: It is possible to identify and even quantify emotions according to an individual’s own introspective reports. He may be able to label the changes—internal or externalhe undergoes as joy, fear, sorrow, etc., and also describe what he was feeling. thinking or doing at the time of experiencing one or the other emotion. In search of some better device for the self-description of emotions, Wilhelm Wundt (1832-1920) developed a tri-dimensional model of introspective approach. He argued that emotions may vary along the three dimensions: pleasantness-unpleasantness, excitementdepression, and strain-relaxation and any given feeling could be located through introspection somewhere within the space defined by these three dimensions. However, this approach also suffered from serious problems as other psychologists did not agree on the dimensions defining feelings and criticised it on the basis of its dependence On introspection i.e., a highly unreliable and subjective approach. However whatever may be the validity of this approach, it carries a unique advantage. Since emotion is regarded as a highly subjective experience i.e.., emotional responses are often based on internal processes that can’t be objectively studied, the self-reporting introspective reports can play a major role in the identification and measurement of emotions.
2. Observations of Facial Expressions: The non-verbal communication in the form of looks, gestures and bodily positions may provide a meaningful clue for identifying various emotional states. Face, to some extent, is Said to be the index of human behaviour and facial expressions in the real sense may provide readily observable identification signs of various.emotions. By looking at one’s facial expression, we can judge one’s intended emotion and level it as anger, laughter, fear, disgust, contempt, love, happiness or surprise. The basis for the correlation between facial expressions and emotions may be discovered both in one’s innate dispositions and socio-cultural environment. Where the way of expressing emotions may vary from culture to culture, 1t may also represent innate responses to particular situations like jumping at the time of hearing a sudden noise and baring teeth at the time of anger.
Behavioural expressions in the form of facial expressions and non-verbal communications, however, cannot be understood as sufficiently objective, reliable and valid instrument for the identification and measurement of one’s emotions. One can easily hide his feelings in the garb of an apparent mask of false facial expressions and other non-verbal communications and thus may make the task of identification quite difficult and most unreliable.
Measurement in terms of physiological change
Emotions, as we have already emphasized, are always accompanied with many physical and physiological changes in an organism. Some of these changes expressed in overt behaviour are easily observable while the others in terms of internal physiological changes require some special devices for their proper measurement. With the advancement of the knowledge and research in this area to day we have sophisticated instruments which can measure these physiological changes in terms of blood pressure, blood volume, respiration, pulse rate, muscle tension, skin temperature and sensitivity, brain waves as well as the pilometer reaction involving erection of body hair often associated with chilling of the skin.
Besides the common instruments available with the medical personnel, some more specialized instruments like galvanic skin reflex instrument, electroencephalograph (EEG) and syphygmomanometer and polygraph (lie detector) have been devised to detect and measure these physiological changes. Galvanic skin reflex instruments measure tbe skin’s level of electrical conductivity (as it has been found that intense emotion can lead to sweating and increased conductivity), the EEG can record safely the electrical activity in the brain and with the help of Syphygmomanometer changes in blood pressure can be properly recorded.
The function of the machine called polygraph (lie detector) is to record autonomic nervous system changes brought on by emotion provoking stimuli. It is equipped with pens that automatically register Changes in respiration, blood pressure, heart rate and skin temperature On rolling graph paper. An individual is tested through this machine for ascertaining his telliog the truth or a lie on the assumption that even the thought of taking such a test can initiate marked physiological changes and thus yield responses that sharply differ from an individual’s normal responses. To begin with, the guilty person may be asked for his name, father’s name, his age and his address, etc., the truth of which can be easily verified. The consequent readings on the graph paper for setting the base line of the normal physiological make-up of the individual are thus taken. In the next step, the person may be asked for the crime or guilty act. If he is truthful, then the machine will not show a significant shift from the earlier base line position. In case he lies, then he is liable to face a stressful emotional situation involving significant physiological changes that can be successfully interpreted through the polygraph.
However the results of these sophisticated instruments including lie detectors have been found wanting in determining and measuring the emotions. Individuals are found to show quite varied physiological responses while experiencing the same emotion. In case of pleasure and joy for example one person might be tense with expectation while another is relaxed and physically calm. Similarly in the lie detection case, a guilty person who is cool and calm can pass the test without any difficulty while the truthful person who is nervous may fall into trouble. Therefore, the measurement of physiological changes through the available sophisticated instruments need a very Cautious approach. There is a need for great expertise on the part of the experimenter. On the one hand he must have an adequate knowledge of the nature and potentials of the emotions of his clients, on the other hand the subjects are required to give him maximum cooperation for the detection and measurement of their emotions.
Physiology of Emotions
Physiological reactions and changes that are associated ‘vith emotions have their roots in our body chemistry. They are controlled by the endocrine glands, the autonomous nervous system and our rain.
As may be understood while going through Chapter four of this text, the endocrine glands affect the emotional behaviour of an individual by the undersecretion or over secretion of the respective hormones.
Our autonomic nervous system plays a significant role in controlling and regulating our emotional behaviour. It has two divisions, the sympathetic and para-sympathetic, that work in close cooperation at the time of an emotional experience. In fear and anger situations, for example, the sympathetic division stimulates the adrenal glands to secrete the hormones adrenaline and noradrenalin resulting in the increase of blood pressure and sugar level of the body. The sympathetic division also causes an enlargement of the pupils, a slowing of the salivary glands (leading to dry mouth) and a contraction of the digestive muscles. The para-sympathetic system, on the other hand, activates itself for the rescue operation. It lowers down the blood pressure and heart rate, starts up stomach and intestine mechanisms and finally helps the organism to return to its normal state of behaviour.
The sympathetic and para-sympathetic divisions of the autonomic nervous system are supposed to have centres’in the hypothalamus, an important constitute of our brain. While the stimulation of the posterior area of the hypothalamus increases sympathetic activities leading to excitement and tension etc., stimulation of the anterior area Causes increase in para-sympathetic activities leading to relaxation and depression etc.
The hypothalamus, in every way, tries to coordinate the activities of the internal organs associated with our emotiona! behaviour. Impulses that come from the hypothalamus increase both smooth muscle (involuntary) and skeletal muscle (voluntary) activities. Various experiments have been performed to study the results of the electrical stimulation of the different areas of hypothalamus result into different types of emotional behaviour e.g., while stimulation at one point produces aggressive behaviour the electrodes applied to another area lead to fear, pleasure or pain. Limbic system, the group of inter-related structures deep within the core of the brain (often called the ‘‘old brain’’) has also been found in union with emotional behaviour of an individual. Jose Delgado, a Spanish psychologist (1969) on the basis of his studies has concluded that stimulation of various areas of our limbic system may produce a variety of emotional reactions and it is easy to locate and identify fear, pain and killing sites in the limbic system, the stimulation of which will produce the concerned emotional reactions.
The connection between the emotional behaviour and stimulation of the various parts of the brain has brought the electric stimulation of the brain as a method for treating violent behaviour in human beings, particularly epileptics whose brain mal-function causes unusual aggressive behaviour. The method of electric stimulation has also been proved successful in relieving the Individuals from severe pain and stressful or depressed situations.
Theories of Emotions
For providing explanation about emotions, psychologists have propagated a number of theories. A few important one’s are described below:
1. The James-Lange Theory: One of the first psychologists to attempt a scientific explanation of emotion was a Harvard professor, William James. Incidentally a few years later in 1885, a Danish physiologist Carl Jang also arrived at the same conclusions as propagated by James and consequently the theory is jointly named as the James-Lange Theory.
2. The James-Lange theory advocates that emotions spring from physiological reactions. The perception of the stimulus causes our body to undergo certain physiological changes and we experience emotion.
This theory, however, reversed the old common sense notion about the sequence of the arousal of emotions. The previous sequence was we see a bear, we feel afraid, we run. According to the new theory. order was changed to we see a bear, we run, we feel afraid.
While commenting on his new theory James writes: ‘‘My theory, on the contrary, is that the bodily changes follow directly the perception of the exciting fact, and that our feeling of the same changes as they occur in the emotion. Common sense says, we loose our fortune, are sorry and weep; we meet a bear, are frightened and run: we are insulted by a rival. are angry and strike….. this order of sequence is incorrect and more rational statement is that we feel sorry because we cry, angry because we strike, afraid because we tremble’’. (1890, p. 450).
3. The Cannon-Bard Theory: In 1927 the American psychologist Walter Cannon unleashed an attack against the James-Lange theory. Later on reinforced by L.L. Bard’s work on the thalamus, he proposed that the lower brain centres, specifically the thalamus and bypothalamus, are responsible for inciting emotional reactions. After Perceiving a stimulus, the sensory impulses reach the thalamic-hypothalamic regions. From there they are carried simultaneously to the internal organs of the body and the cerebral cortex. The cerebral cortex, therefore, receives and experiences emotion at the same time that physical changes are occurring in the body.
In this way, Cannon-Bard theory tried to maintain that emotion and physiological responses occur simultaneously not one after another. For example, when we encounter a frightening stimulus like a bear, the sequence of the arousal of emotion takes the form: we perceive the bear, we run and are afraid, with neither reaction i.e..emotional response and emotional experience, preceding the Other.
5. Cognitive Theory: Round about 1970, the American psychologists Stanley Schachter and Jerome Singer, while adopting an eclectic approach to both the earlier theories of emotion, introduced a new theory named Cognitive theory of emotion. They suggested that our physical arousal together with our perception and judgment of situation (cognition) jointly determine which emotions we feel. In other words, Our emotional arousal depends on both physiological changes and the cognitive or mental interpretation of those changes. One cannot work without the other. However, the necessary detection and explanation for an emotional state always rests with the interpretation of a situation. Since this interpretation is purely a subject of cognitive functioning, the cognitive factors are said to be the potent determiners of our emotional states.
The views expressed by Schachter and Singer was also supported by Magda Arnold by stating that cognitive processes control how we interpret our feelings and how we act on them. She used the torm Cognitive Appraisal for the identification and interpretation of emotion provoking stimuli.
In this way, cognitive theory of emotion, tried to emphasize the role of the cognitive factors, a third element, in understanding the relationship between physical reactions and emotional experience aroused on account of the perception of an emotion provoking stimulus. Cognitive theory helped us to learn that the emotional experience and physiological changes through which we pass are determined by the way we interpret a situation through the cognitive functioning. In short, we can say that the dominant cognitive element of our behaviour in the form of our previous knowledge and our interpretation of the present situation directly affect our emotional experience.
Activation theory
The implications of the Cannon-Bard theory in suggesting that “emotions serve an emergency function by preparing the organism for appropriate action” led the way to the modern Activation theories of emotion. The term activation theory of emotion was actually coined in 1951 by Donald B. Lindsley. In_ general, Activation theory refers to the view that emotion represents a state of heightened arousal rather than a qualitatively unigue type of psychological, physiological or behavioural process. Arousal is considered to lie on a wide continuum ranging from a very low level such as deep sleep, to such extremely agitated states as rage or extreme anger.
According to Lindsley, (1951), emotion provoking stimuli activate the recticular activating system in the brain stem, which in turn sends impulses both upward toward the cortex and downward toward the musculature. For the occurrence of a significant emotional behaviour, the recticular formation must be properly activated. However, the activating system tries to serve only a general emerging function and the specific structures in the brain organise the input and determine the particular form of the expressed emotion.
Conclusion about Theories
All these four types of theories discussed above, have tried to provide explanation for the emotional behaviour in their own ways. The James-Lange theory states that our bodily responses stimulate our perception of emotion. The body first responds physiologically to a stimulus, and then the cerebral cortex determines the emotional experience. The Cannon-Bard theory states that impulses from the emotion provoking stimulus are sent simultaneously to the cerebral cortex and the internal organs of the body. Thus the emotional experience and the bodily responses occur simultaneously, but independently. Cognitive theory brings into the lime-light the dominant role played by cognitive factors stating that the emotion we experience and physiological responses we give are both determined by the cognitive functioning; the way in which our mind receives and interprets the stimuli. The Activation theory developed by Lindsley focusses on the role played by the recticular activating system for the arousing and display of emotions. If we try to evaluate the views proposed by these theories, we can come to the conclusicn that none of these existing theories can be termed as a comprehensive theory of emotional behaviour. However, to some extent it can be concluded that emotional behaviour is surely a product of the process of activation. The biological structure of an individual modulated by the environmental experiences, in one way or the other. naust activate the internal organs and the cerebral cortex for the various physiological responses and affective experiences that are experienced by an individual while going through an emotional behaviour.
SUMMARY
It has been found that there are certain specific, innate and inborn modes of behaviour that may be exhibited by the organisms without any prior training or experience. Behaviour of this type has been named as instinctive behaviour and the innate tendencies or predisposition responsible for such behaviour patterns are known as instincts.
The psychologists like William James, William McDougall, Sigmund Freud, Alfred Adler, Carl Jung, etc.. have supported the instinctive theory of behaviour by hypothesizing that the instincts are the ultimate cause of all activities. While James has given a list of 9 basic instincts, and McDougall a list of 14 instincts, the later psychologists Freud. Adler and Jung brought in the field some new instincts like the life instinct, death instinct, the will to power, selfactualization and herd instinct.
Nowadays the instinctive theory stands somewhat rejected for explaining human behaviour. Recent researches have concluded that contrary to the behaviour of lower organisms, it is very difficult to distinguish between learned behaviour patterns and instinctive ones jin human beings and therefore what behaviour one possesses, should be considered a consequence of the interaction between one’s individéal environment and his biological structures and disposition (both inherited and acquired).
Instincts should not be confused with reflex actions that are directly operated by our spinal cord without bringing our brain into the picture. Reflexes are more prompt, automatic and short lived. While instinctive behaviour can be modified or improved through experience or training, the reflex act like sneezing, blinking of eyes, etc., remain the same.
An Instinctive behaviour as McDougall demonstrated necessarily involves all the three aspects of our behaviour i.e., cognitive (perceiving or knowing), affective (feeling or emotion) and conative (doing or acting). In his list of 14 instincts, he also pointed out the names of specific emotions attached to each of the 14 instincts and termed emotions as the product of some instinctive behaviour. There exists a number of theories to explain emotions. The James-Lange theory advocates that emotions spring from physiological reactions. This theory reversed the notion about the sequence vf the arousal of emotions from we see a bear, we feel afraid, we run to, we see a bear, we run, we feel afraid.
The Cannon-Bard Theory tried to maintain that emotion and physiological responses occur simultaneously, not one after another. Therefore, the sequence of emotional arousal should be: We perceive the bear, we run and are afraid.
Cognitive theory tried to emphasize the role of the cognitive factors a third element, in understanding the relationship between physical reactions and emotional experiences aroused on account of the perception of an emotion-provoking stimulus.
Activation theories, the most modern in the line, in general refers to the view that emotion represents a state of heightened arousal. For the occurrence of a significant emotional behaviour, the recticular activating system located in our brain stem, must be properly activated to react in consultation with the higher structures of the brain.
Emotions, thus viewed, essentially represent strong feelings of affective experiences which are characterised by some definite internal and external bodily changes and they are accompanied with some of other types of behavioural acts. Emotions are generally categorized as positive and negative.
In positive emotions while we include the emotions of love curiosity, joy and happiness; the unpleasant emotions of fear, anger, jealousy are included in the category of nogative emotions.
The task of the identification and measurement of the nature and intensity of these positive and negative emotions—may be carried out through introspective reports, observation of facial expressions and Measurement in terms of internal physiological changes. The last mentioned method requires tho use of sophisticated instruments for measuring physiological changes in terms of blood pressure, respiration, pulse rate, skin temperature, sensitivity, brain waves etc. The most modern specialized instrument like EEG. Galvanic skin reflex instruments, syphygmomanometer and lie detector can also be put into use for the objective and reliable (to certain extent) measurement of the nature and intensity of emotions.
References and Suggested Readings
Arnold, M.B., Emotion and Persorality (2 Vols.}; New York: Columbia University Press, 1960.
Barnard, L.L.. Instincts: A Study in Social Psychology, London: George Allen, and Unwin, 1924.
Bimey, R.C. & Tee Van, R.L., Instincts, New York: Van Nostrand 1961].
Cannon, W.B., Bodily Changes in Pain, Hunger, Fear and Rage (2nd ed) New York: Appleton-Century-Crofts, 1929.
Crow, L.D. and Crow, A., Educational Psychology (3rd Indian reprint) New Delhi; Eurasia Publishing House, 1973.
Darwin, C., The Expression of the Emotions in Man and Animals (reprint) Chicago: Chicago University Press, 1965.
Delgado, J.M R., Physical Control of the Mind: Towards a Psycho-civilized Society, New York: Harper & Row, 1969.
Drever, J., Instinct in Man, Cambridge: Cambridge University Press, 1917.
James, William., The Principles of Psychology (Vol. land I), New York: Henry Holt & Co. 1980.
James, William., Psychology: Brief Course, London: Collier Macmillan Ltd., 1969.
Lindsley, D.B.. Emotion in S.S. Stevans (Ed.) Hand Book of Experimental Psychology, New York: John Wiley, 1951.
McDougall, William., An Introduction to Social Psychology (28th ed) London: Methuen, 1946.
McDougall, William G., An Outline of Psychology (13th ed.) London Methuen, 1949.
Morris, Charles G., Psychology (3rd ed.), Englewood Cliffs, New Jersey: Prentice Hall, 1979.
Schachter, S & Singer, J.E., Cognitive, Social and Physiological Determinants of Emotional State, *‘Psychological review’, 1962, 69 p. p. 369-399,
Schachter, S., Emotion Obesity and Crime, New York: Academic Press, 1971. Selye, H., The Stress of Life, New York: McGraw-Hill, 1956. Tinbergen N., The Study of Instinct, London: Oxford University Press, 1956.
Young, P.T.. Emotion in Men and Animal (2nd Ed.), Huntington: New York: Krieger, 1973.
Wood, J., How Do You Feel? Englewood Cliffs, New Jersey: Prentice Hall, 1974. Woodworth, R.S., Psychology, London: Methuen, 1945.
Chapter 7
SENSES AND SENSITIVITY
We do not live in vacuum. Our environment that surrounds us is fully charged with the existence and activities of the various living Organisms, inanimate objects and events. All that exists in our environment may be described in terms of various stimuli. These stimuli may lie both inside and outside of our body. Flowers present in the garden, birds flying in the air, hunger pangs in our stomach and pains somewhere in our body, all play a determined bid to call our attention for realizing their existence as well as awareness. This, in turn, makes us interact with these stimuli in terms of receiving, interpreting and responding to them. The exposure to the stimuli present in our environment is thus the primary source of the information. What we derive from our environment and the relevant response to this ts the origin of our behaviour.
How do we interact with the stimuli present in the environment? What is that which helps us in becoming aware of what Is going on both inside and outside of our body? The answer, lies in the existence and functioning of our body’s sense organs. Let us try to know all about It.
Meaning and types of senses
Our senses are in fact the windows to the world—internal as_ well as external. These are the gateways of all information that our brain receives by interacting with the stimuli present inside and outside of our body. Our great ancient thinkers held that there were five human senses—vision, hearing, smell, taste and touch corresponding to the sense organs, eyes, ears, nose, tongue, and skin of our body. During the subsequent ages there has been an addition of some more senses to this list. These senses may be grouped into five categories as under:
Name of the category
1. The Visual Senses – Sense of vision.
2. The Auditory Senses – Sense of hearing.
3. The Chemical Senses – Sense of smell and sense of taste.
4. The Skin Senses – Sense of pressure, sense of temperature and sense of pain.
5. The Body Senses – Kinesthetic sense and Vestibular sense.
We would be discussing in detail each of these types somewhere in this chapter. Here first we will concentrate on some general features of these senses along with the mechanism of sensation.
Sensation and sensitivity
Each stimulus present outside and inside of our body emits a certain amount of physical energy that is ultimately responsible for producing some effect in one or the other sensory organs of our body. This page of the present book, for example, 1s working as a stimulus for producing some effects on our sense organs. It has a particular size and shape, colour and texture and itsletters reflect, a particular pattern. This effect produced on our sense organs for enabling us to become aware or conscious of the nature of a particular stimulus is known as sensation and the quality or tendency of a sense organ to help us in feeling some or the other type of sensation is known as Sensitivity.
We as human beings neither respond indiscriminately nor are we capable of becoming aware or conscious of each and every stimulus available in our environment. We do not have the same power of smelling as our dog has. We cannot see in the dark but our cat is capable of doing so. Similarly the light or sound waves that are beyond our sensation can be successfully caught by our television set. Not only in terms of detection but also in terms of discrimination (which sound frequency is higher, which object is bigger, etc.) we have our limitations. The degree to which we are capable of detecting a stimulus or discriminating between two or more stimuli for finding out the difference, we are. said to be sensitive or are attributed to possess sensitivity to that stimulus or that difference. –
The detection and discrimination of stimuli
The psychology of sensation, as we have seen above, is concerned with an organism’s ability to become aware or conscious of some or the other stimuli present in our external or internal environment. This awareness or consciousness of the stimuli has two aspects. The first is concerned with the problem of detection; to find out whether a Stimulus is present or absent e.g. is there anv smell in toilet soap? The second is concerned with the problem of discriminating between stimuli e.g., judging which of two toilet soaps have a more pleasant odor. Let us have some thoughts over the questions of detection and discrimination of stimull.
Each: of our sense organs is specifically stimulated to produce a Particular kind of effect (Sensation) by the physical energy emitted by a particular kind of stimulus. For example the ears are stimulated by the sound stimuli to produce hearing sensation and eyes are stimulated by the light stimuli to produce vision sensation. It is not .essential that a stimulus should always result in some sensation for an Individual. One may or may not at all have heard a particular sound, smelt something or seen a light. The question arises how much sensory stimulation is needed to produce a given sensation or a noticeable difference in sensation? This question related with the problem of dotection and discrimination may be answered through two technical concepts, namely, absolute threshold and difference threshold.
Absolute threshold may be defined as the minimum intensity of physical energy of a stimulus that may produce any sensation at all in a person. It does not mean that below a certain intensity of physical enorgy, a Stimulus is not able to activate the receptor of a sense organ, The receptor of the sense organ is always activated or stimulated but the stimulation may not be strong enough to result ina sensation. In other words, an individual feels a sensation on account of the stimulation from a stimulus only when the condition of a required level of absolute threshold is fulfilled. The absolute thresho[p will, therefore, help in detecting sounds or odours, we may hear of smell from those we cannot.
How can absolute threshold be measured? In general the most common methods used for this purpose are (i) the method of limits, (ii) the method of constant stimuli and (iii) the method of forced choice. Let us illustrate the working of these methods in the case of auditory stimulation.
The method of limits: In the method of limits the work is carried out in two rounds. In the first round, the intensity of the sound is progressively raised from a quite low level until the subject says that he hears the sound. This value of the intensity of sound is recorded by the experimenter. Let it be say X1.
Second round begins with a quite high level of the intensity of the sound. This level is now successively lowered until the subject reports that he hears no sound. This value of the intensity of sound is then recorded by the experimenter. Let it be say Y1.
The experimenter in this way, tries to complete various rounds involving ascending and descending series of the intensity of sounds.
The average of the value x1 + Y1 / 2 , x2 + Y2 /2 + X3 + Y3 /2 etc, is designated as the absolute threshold.
The method of constant Stimuli: In this method the subject is exposed to a number of stimuli of varying intensity involving a wide range along a given dimension. The stimuli are presented to the subject in random order (not in ascending or descending order as in the method of limits) and each time he is asked to indicate whether or not he detects the stimulus. For example in the case of auditory stimulation, he may be asked to say whether or not he hears the sound. The responses of the subject are then recorded and a graph as shown opposite can be plotted to show which stimuli has been detected on which or not.
The method of forced choice: in this method the subject is exposed to a group of selected stimuli, e.g. he may listen to four sounds of varying intensity and may be asked to say ‘yes’ for any one of the four (showing detectability that he is able to hear it). This experiment may then be repeated with other groups of selected stimuli. The average value of the intensity of the stimulus derived from these sounds of the experiment, then, will give the absolute threshold.
Difference threshold and Weber’s Law
The question of discriminating between stimuli or finding difference in sensation, for example, first sound is louder than the second sound or vice versa, may be answered in terms of difference threshold and more clearly through Weber’s Law.
The difference threshold is the minimum difference in the intensity of two stimuli that a person is able to detect. In other words, it is the smallest change in stimulation that he is able to detect or the smallest difference in sensation he is able to discriminate. This is also named as just noticeable difference or j.n.d.
The difference threshold may be determined much in the same way as the absolute threshold by adopting any of the three methods described earlier. In any case its value represents the minimum intensity change that is detected by the subject on at least fit.y per Cent of the presentation.
The difference threshold like absolute threshold varies from Situation to situation and from individual to individual. One interesting feature of the difference threshold is that it varies with the strength or value of the stimulus. This relationship was first demon strated in 1834 by Ernst Weber by giving a law known as Weber’s Law.
Weber’s Law: This law states that the difference threshold is proportional to the strength or value of the stimulus. It means that for creating a just noticeable difference we have to increase or reduce the intensity of the stimulus in the ratio of the strength of the stimulus. For example, if we have two fifty kilograms weights and during experiment it is found that we require a 100 gm. weight to be added or taken away for a just noticeable difference between these two weights, then it is implied that we will require 200 gm weight for discriminating between two hundred kilograms weights.
Various senses and their functioning
Let us now turn over to knowing in detail about the various types of senses. For this purpose, first we take our sense of vision.
Sense of vision
For human beings it is the most important sense as it supplies them with the greatest amount of information about the external world. The physical stimulus for the sense of vision is light. Light is an electromagnetic energy force that travels through space in the form of light waves at approximately 1,86,000 miles or 3,00,000 kilometers per second trom sources like, sun, electric bulbs, lamps etc. We as human beings are able to utilise but a very small portion of the light waves available in space, known as visible spectrum. Xrays, radar, television and radio waves are among those that cannot be received by the humin eye, the receptor of the light waves.
Rays of light enters the eye through the cornea, the transparent covering that protects our eyes. Approximately 3 percent of the light rays are reflected off the cornea surface and the remaining ones are passed through the liquid aqueous humor (the fluid behind the cornea) and the pupil of the eye. The pupil of the eye; a black circle Aies in the centre of the iris, the coloured part of the eye. The quantity of light that enters the eve is controlled by the size of the pupil which is controlled by the muscles that he in the inner boundary of the iris. In dim light the muscles of the iris relax, causing the pupil to open wider to let in more light. [n bright light the iris contracts, closing the pupil for cutting down the amount of light entering the eye.
Through the pupil, light enters the !ens. a transparent focussing mechanism which focusses it on a photosensitive surface called the retina lying well inside the wall of the eve ball. The common complaints of near-sightedness and far-sightcdness are caused by an error an cOmmunication between the lens and the retina.
The retina contains the receptor celis that respond to light. But before the light can reach the receptor cells, it must pass through a Jayer of nerve fibres and blood vessels existing within the retina. Near the middle of the retina, there lies a blind spot. There are no receptors in this blind spot. The receptor cells of the retina are classified into two groups—long thin rods and short squat cones. The retina is composed of millions of these two types of receptors. Cones are located at the centre of the retina, primarily in an area called the fovea. The cones enable us to see colour. They operate mainly in daylight and are responsible for visual acuity (Visual acuity is referred to keenness of vision, the ability to discriminate details and fine differences in the field of vision). The rods, that respond to low illumination, are situated on the outside, pheripheral areas. They are mainly responsible for night vision, the capability of seeing in the dark.
When the light falls at the rods and cones, it activates these light receptors and sets up neural impulses, messages in the form of electrochemical energy. This electrochemical energy from the rods and cones is then sent to bipolar cells and ganglion cells in the retina. In general, multiple rods and cones are connected to each bipolar cell and multiple bipolar cells coverge on each ganglion cell. The axons of ganglion cells make up the optic nerve. This optic nerve is responsible for sending the electrochemical messages to the visual area of the brain, where sensations of vision are indicated.
Adaptation: For the sake of our safety as well as our pleasure, receptors in our sense organs exhibit the property of adaption. This adaption is exhibited in two ways. Firstly, the receptors can receive sensory stimulation and operate effectively across quite a wide range. As a result our ears can work with the stimuli having miost intense sound to.the least audible sound; our eyes can function in the intense bright light as weil as in the dimlight and darkness. Secondly, as a result of continuing stimulation, the receptors in our sense organs get accustomed to that particular stimulation resulting in a greatly diminished sensitivity to that stimulus. For example the inhabitants of a slum area may get adapted to an extremely unpleasant odour of a stagnant pond or a chemical fertilizer.
Visual adaptation: The receptors in our visual system exhibit three types of adaptation:
(i) the retinal adaptation.
(ii) the dark adaptation and
(iii) the light adaptation.
In retinal adaptation, an individual in due course Of time perceives an image of a formless gray field of light if the rods and cones of his retina are exposed to constant stimulation. In order to do away with such adaptation which may make the light receptors as wholly insensitive, human eyes engage in minute involuntary movements. These movements keep the image moving across the retina and back and thus help the receptors to get rest and restore their chemical balance.
In case we happen to be shifted from sunlight abruptly into a dark surrounding, we feel a lot of difficulty in detecting objects in the darkness for a few minutes. Also we cannot identify any colour as there is not enough energy in the dim light to stimulate the cones to respond to colours. Then after a few minutes, the process of adaptation begins. The receptors of our eyes start adjusting to low light intensity by an enlarging of the pupil, a build-up of visual pigments in the receptors and a switch from colour (cone) vision to rod vision. As the rods can function effectively even when there is not enough light to stimulate the cones, we get adapted to the darkness and begin to identify the objects. But what we see is a black and white world of different brightness, completely deprived of the colours.
Afterwards when we come into brighter daylight again. our eyes feel difficulty in facing the light waves. It is because the continued exposure of the visual system to darkness makes our eyes so_ sensitive to light that bright intense light 1s nearly painful. Our immediate reaction is to squint and shield our eyes. Then the process of adaptation starts. The muscles of the eye squeeze the pupil smaller; build up of visual pigments (that occurred during darkness) gets reduced by decomposition and there is a shift from rod to cone vision. Gradually the eyes become less sensitive and its reception becomes light adapted.
Purkinje Effect: The Czech Psychologist Purkinje studied the visibility of the colour in terms of day and night vision and concluded that it depends upon their respective wave lengths. Red and yellow colours are usually taken asa brighter colour than blue and green. But, it has been observed that in dim lighting—for example in twilight —the red and yellow colours (having longer wave lengths) lose their brightness and in comparison, the blue and green colours (having shorter wave lengths) appear much brighter. As darkness of
the night increases, those colours that are the brightest by daylight will be lost and be replaced by gray; whereas green objects will continue to appear green for a longer time. This shift in visibility—from a longer wave length to the shorter—is called the Purkinje effect, named after a nineteenth century Czech physiologist Purkinje who was able to notice it first.
This effect occurs due to shift in the operation of receptor cells. The day or bright vision is effectively operated by cones whereas rods are responsible for dim light or night vision. The colours having longer wave length are intensely illuminated when they are activated through cones in dim light or at night, with the cones about to retreat and rods taking over the operation, the colours having shorter wave length get more illumination in comparison with the colours having longer wave length.
Colour Vision: We, human beings cannot respond to the whole world of light. We are limited to the visible spectrum of colours. The ability to see colours depends on the capacity of the receptor cells ia the retina for sending different messages to the brain in response to different wave lengths of the visible spectrum. The visible spectrum is divided into seven colours. It does not mean that we can detect only seven colours. Most of us can see between 125 and 130 separate colours irrespective of the fact that we have only a limited number of names for colours.
Colour Mixture: One of the important phenomena of colour vision is concerned with the mixing or combining of colours that are. usually available in the visible spectrum. There is usually two types of colour mixing — subtractive and additive.
Subtracting mixing takes place when we mix paints. In such colour mixture, each of the mixed paint tries to absorb (and thus subtracts) some wave length from the light falling on it. The remaining unabsorbed wave lengths are then reflected back to our eyes which makes us perceive the colour we see. For example, the mixture of yellow and blue paints is perceived as green. only because, our eye receives the green wave length which remain unabsorbed by either the yellow or blue.
Additive mixing takes place when we mix light waves of different colours. In such mixing none of the component wave lengths are absorbed (subtracted); rather all of them reach the eye and are then transmitted to the brain where they are somehow mixed to produce the colour that is visible by us. It has been experimentally observed that there are some primary colours the mixing of which can help in producing any colour in the spectrum. The primary colours of light (wave lengths) are red light, blue light and green light. [n case we try to project lights of any two or more primary colours on a screen and then try to combine them by their overlapping, the results will be as under:
In addition to this, every primary colour has a single complementary colour. Mixing of these two complementary colours results gray or if the two lights are bright enough, white.
Colour Blindness: The defects in colour vision which makes a person unable to see some or all colours is termed as colour blindness. The persons whose eyes see no colours at all are completely colour blind. This type of blindness is technically known as achromatism. It 1s on account of the genetically determined absence of cones m the retina. They can respond only to the shades of light and dark. Therefore, outside world of colours for these indrviduals is nothing but black, white and shades of gray. “
On the other hand, the persons whose eyes are unable to see some particular colours are termed as partially or mildly colour behind They suffer from various colour anomalities like red-green anomaly and yellow-blue anomaly. The person suffering from red-green anomaly are unable to see the red and green colours and their combrnations. They can see only variously saturated yellow, blue as well as gray. On the other hand, persons suffering from yellow-blue anomaly may see all of the reds and greens but perceives blues and yellows as eray or—if these colours are quite bright—as pure white.
Theories of colour vision
How we see colours has been a subject of extensive research. Two most popular theories, originated in the nineteenth century in this connection are known as Young-Helmholtz Trichomatic Theory and Hering’s Opponent Process Theory.
Young-Helmholtz Theory: It was first advocated by Thomas Young (1773-1829), an English physicist. Later on, it was elaborated by Hermann Von Helmholtz (1821-1894), a German physiologist. According to this theory, there are three types of cone cells in the retina which display three distinct types of sensitivity; one for each of the three primary colours—red, green and blue. Sensitivity to all other colours is caused by varving combinations and proportions of excitation of these three types of receptor cells in the same way as may be produced by mixing of the corresponding primary colours.
This theory, subsequently, faced criticism on various grounds, Firstly, it failed to explain red-green colour blindness. The absence of both red and green experiences in the red-green colour blind, according to this theory, may be explained on the basis of the presumed absence of red and green cones. However, it may further fail to explain the detection of yellow (a combination of red and green) .by a red-green blind.
The second weakness of the theory lies in its failure to explain the phenomena related to colour zones. In other words it could not answer why the red and green are seen only near the centre of the retina while blue and yellow are seen further out towards the peripheri.
Thirdly, it failed to explain the phenomena of after images and contrast (the alteration in the effect of one visual stimulus by another stimulus that occurs before, afterward. or at the same time).
In spite of all these weaknesses, Young-Helmholtz theory stll holds enough ground for providing explanations of colour vision on account of its belief in the association of three cone types with the three primary colours.
Hering’s opponent process theory
This theory was formulated by Edwald Hering (1834-1918). According to this theorv, the colour vision does not depend on the mixture of three primary colours as advocated by Helmholtz theory but depends on three different mechanisms or processes operating in the retina (containing three separate receptors) each producing two opposite qualities of sensation. These are (i) black-white mechanism, (ii) red-green mechanism and (iii) yellow-blue mechanism. While the black-white mechanism accounts for our perception of brightness, the other two account for colour.
In all these three mechanisms or processes, the colours in each pair Oppose each other i.e., sensation of black is opposed to white; sensation of red is opposed to the sensation of green and the sensation of yellow is opposed to the sensation of blue. This is why, we never see a reddish green or a bluish yellow, or a perception of white in the absence of light or a perception of black in the presence of visiblo light. The colour anomalies are the results of improper functioning of either the red-green or the yellow-blue mechanism. The Hering theory is called the opponent process theory because the two pro Cesses in each mechanism oppose each other.
In addition to the explanation of colour anomalies, Hering’s theory is also suitable for explaining our perception of complementary colours. It postulates that if two complementary colours—say red and green, simultaneously stimulate the red-green mechanism; they result in Opposing and counteracting each other. Moreover, this theory is also credited for providing explanation of the phenomena of colour zones, after effect and contrast.
The chief weakness of the Hering’s theory; as pointed out by Chaplin and Krawiec (1974, p. 109), lies in 1ts assumptions involving opponent processes in the retina. The assumptions are complex and involve the postulation of events for which there is no physiological evidence. The theory also suffers from the limitation of having to account for certain aspects of brightness phenomena in colour mixing in a highly complex manner. However, with all such minor limitations in the real sense, the Hering’s theory is continuing to enjoy wide recognition for its capability of explaining the truths about colour vision.
The sense of hearing
The sense of hearing gives us the pleasure of enjoying sound sensations. The physical stimuli for the sense of hearing are sound waves. These waves are molecules of air, travelling at approximately 750 miles per hour, compressing and expanding as they progress on their way. Such waves travel much like the ripples produced by a pebble thrown into a pond.
The Characteristics of Sound: Like light waves, sound waves vary jn frequency and amplitude. The frequency of the waves is measured gn cycles per second, expressed in a unit called Hertz (Hz). One wave cycle is that portion of a regularly recurring wave that is completed once. The human ear can detect frequencies of from 20 to 20,000 hert?
For their distinction and discrimination, sound-waves carry some more typical characteristics in the name of pitch, loudness, tone and timbre, etc,
When we have to see that a sound is low or high, it is said in terms of the pitch. Pitch of a sound is determined by the frequency of wave vibrations per second measured in hertz.
Loudness. of the sound involves its pitch as w: Il as its amplitude. It is measured in decibel units.
A tone is made up of regular wave vibrations. A pure tone consists of a single frequency However, we seldom hear the sounds resulting from pure tones. Most of the time it contains much of the overtones —consisting of a fundamental frequency and multiples of that frequency. A complex typical pattern of the over tones determines the timbre or texture of the sound.
The Structure and functioning of the ear
Our cars work as an auditory system for the sensation of hearing: The structure of the ear as shown in the figure below, can be roughly divided into three parts: outer ear, middle ear, and inner ear, Let us try to see, how the auditory system works.
The sound waves from the air are first collected by the pinna (the outer ear).
It channels them into the auditory canal to reach and bump up against the eardrum, the thin stretchable, vibrating membrane that separates the eardrum to vibrate. The quivering of the eardrum causes three tiny bones in the middle ear called the hammer, the anvil and the stirrup to hit each other in sequence and carry the vibrations to the inner ear. The last of these three bones, the stirrup is loosely connected to the oval window.
Just below the oval window, there is a membrane called the round window which tries to equalize the pressure in the inner ear when the Stirrup hits against the oval window.
The oval window is a membrane of the cochlea, the inner ear Mechanism. The cochlea is a pea-sized coiled tube, It is filled with
some fluid and contains the basilar membrane stretched throughout its lengths. Once transmitted across the oval window and into tie inner ear, the sound waves set up a disturbance in the fluids contain. ed in the cochlea. When the fluids in the cochlea begin to move, the basilar membrane vibrates. The basilar membrane then, transmits the sound vibration to the actual auditory receptors—hair cells located on the organ of Corti, a structure that is attached to the basilar membrane. As waves travel through the cochlea, the hair is moved and the hair cells are pulled by their movement. Stimulation. of the hair cells, in turn, excites the spiral ganglion cells, which send neural impulses (a coded message of the sound heard) through the auditory nerve to the brain.
Theories of hearing
When we speak something it is transmitted to the ears of other persons in the form of sound waves. How these sound waves are received by the receptors of the auditory system and travel all along the hair cells, has been discussed in the preceding pages. The questions which remain unanswered upto this stage are concerned with the process of auditory coding and discrimination of pitch. How are the many different sound wave patterns that reach our ears coded into neural impulses? How do the hair cells, the actual auditory receptors communicate with the brain about the loudness or pitch of the sound”? These questions have been a matter of great investigation resulting into theories of hearing. Let us discuss some major theories like Place theory, Frequency theory and Volley theory.
The Place theory: The place theory or resonance theory was formulated by Hermann Von Helmholtz, a German physiologist who is known to develop the trichomatic theory of colour vision. According to this theory, the basilar membrane, including the organ of corti with its hair cells, functions as a resonator. In other words, it vibrates in sympathy with the external sound waves coming into the ear by way of the auditory canal and oval window. These incoming sound waves vibrate the basilar membrane and those of different frequencies displace different parts of the membrane and stimulate different places of the organ of corti. The coding of physical frequency is determined by the place of stimulation on the organ of corti. In other words, the place theory asserts that the pitch of a sound is dependent on the place of stimulation on the organ of the corti. The analysis of the quality of the sound waves reaching the ear thus takes place in the cochlea through the identification of the places of stintulation,
The Frequency theory: The credit for the propagation of frequency theory goes to William Rutherfold (1839-1899). In essence a pure frequency theory holds that the cochlea responds to a sound wave entering the outer ear like a telephone transmitter by reproducing the waves frequencies, that is, it simply transmits neural impulses along ditory nerve at the same rate as incoming stimulus frequencies. The frequency theory, in this way, in contrast to place theory places
the entire burden of analysis of the quality of the sound wave (discrimination of intensity, pitch, etc.) on the auditory cortex of the brain.
The Volley theory: The frequency theories got into serious trouble on the ground as it was noted that nerve impulses cannot be fired as rapidly as the frequency of the highest pitched sound we are able to hear. This problem was solved by the evolution of the volley theory. This theory maintains that one nerve cannot fire rapidly enough to follow a high frequency and therefore, several nerves would have to alternate in transmitting volleys of impulses. In other words, nerve cells send impulses in sequence, not individually. For example, first one nerve cell fires, then a second and a third, and so on. By that time, the former ones take rest to recover and fire again.
None of the above theories alone may be said to give a full account of the auditory coding and discrimination of the sound in terms of pitch, intensity and timbre etc. However, their validity to explain these mechanisms somehow in their own way remains unaffected and this is why an electic approach incorporating the viewpoints of all the available theories is considered best to serve the required purposes.
The chemical sense
senses of smell and of taste are ealled chemical senses as both are said to be activated by chemical stimuli.
Sense of Smell: The receptors for the smell sensation are situated igh in each nasal cavity in a small cell packed area called the
olfactory epithelium. The olfactory epithelium is only about half the size of a postage stamp, but it is packed with nearly 600,000 receptor cells known as olfactory cells. These cells have a lot of olfactory hair, which is stimulated by molecules of substances that come in through the nose or rise up from the base of the mouth.
The axon of the receptors carry the smell sensations in the form of neural impulses directly to the olfactory bulbs in the brain and as a result we experience a particular odour. Although nothing has been definitely known about what kinds of molecules carry what kinds of odours, it has been concluded through some latest researches in this field that both the size and the shape of the aromatic molecules influence the particular odour they carry.
Sense of taste
The receptor cells for the sense of taste lie inside the taste buds, which may be located witbin small bumps of the tongue in the back of the mouth and in the throat. However, most of these taste buds numbering about !U,00U are concentrated on the tip, sides and back of the tongue. Each of the so-called taste buds contains about 20 taste cells, a cluster of taste receptors. These taste cells form an opening at the top of the bud known as the taste pore.
The chemical substances in the foods we eat when dissolved in saliva, are then passed through these taste pores to the cells responsible for taste detection and ultimately the taste sensations in the janguage of neural impulses are sent through axon of the taste cells and sensory nerves to the brain which tells us how we can experience the sense of taste. These taste experiences, established through various researches and experiments, are usually concerned with the temperature and consistency of the food, the smell of the food molecules, the four primary taste qualities—sweet, sour, salty and bitterand all other tastes results from a combination of these four qualities.
The skin sense
The group of skin senses includes three senses: the sense of touch or pressure, the sense of pain and the sense of temperature (warmth and cold).
The Receptors of the skin senses: The receptors in the skin for these three types of sensation fall into three general categories; free nerve endings, basket nerve endings and encapsulated end organs. All these different kinds of skin sense receptors send typical skin sensory messages to the brain through the spinal cord. The messages from the Jeft side of the body are transmitted to the right cerebral hemisphere and from the right side of the body to the left hemisphere. Let us now learn more about these receptors.
Free nerve endings receptors are found just below the surface of the skin. They‘ are involved in all the three types of skin sensations.
Basket nerve endings recoptors represent the nerve fibres that wrap around the base of the hair. They are more responsive to the stimuli carrying touch or pressure sensation.
Encapsulated end organs, the third type of skin sense receptors represent those nerve fibres that end inside some sort of capsule or shell. They are found to be sensitive to pressure and temperature.
Sense of touch or pressure. Sense of touch or pressure is helpful in feeling the sensation of touch or pressure on our body. The receptors concerning this sense are usually concentrated in the fingertips, Jips and other areas capable of spatial discrimination of pressure. Unlike the other senses, the receptors in the sense of touch respond only to changes in stimulation (increase or decrease in the amount of pressure) and consequently, they fail to detect continuous touch.
Sense of temperature: The sense of temperature helps us in feeling the sensation of warmth and cold as well as in detecting the difference between two temperatures. It has been established that there are no separate receptor cells for warmth and cold and as a receptor the free nerve endings are mostly responsible for the differences in sensitivity to temperature. The object at least 1or 2 degrees centigrade warmer than our body temperature are sensed by the receptor cells as warm and those at least 1 or 2 degrees centigrade colder than our body temperature are sensed as cold.
When we are touching something warm and something cool at the same time two types of paradoxical sensations may be felt. In the case of paradoxical cold, the high temperatures are felt almost like freezing cold at the first instant of stimulation. Similarly in the case of paradoxical heat, the brain may read the combined effect of warmth and cold sensations as a sensation of intense heat or burning.
Sense of pain: The sense of pain helps us in realising the sensation of pains. The receptors in the skin for pain lie mainly in the free nerve endings. However, the receptors for pain reside not only in the skin but in muscles and body organs as well, thus accounting for much of the distress that comes from cramps and intestinal disorders. In general, all such stimulation that produce tissue damage may cause pain.
An important theory concerning pain, known as the ‘gate control theory’, was propagated in 1965 by the psychologists Ronald Melzack and Patrick Wall. This theory maintains that there is a gatelike mechanism in our pain-signaling system. This gate may be opencd fully, partially, or not at all, depending on the levels of the activity of sensory fibres that run from the body’s surface to the central nervous system. Some fibres when stimulated may ciose the gate ‘while some others when stimulated may open the gate. The opening of the gate increases pain while its closing diminishes the level of pain. [n addition to this, other brain mechanisms also play a part in feeling pain. For example, certain areas of the brain-stem can send out signals to fibres connected to the spinal cord, which can effectively block pam. Similarly the cerebral cortex may also affect the feeling of pain by inhibiting fibres that descend from the cortex. The gate way theory, in this way, may prove quite helpful in explaining the mechanisms of experiencing pain including the role of higher brain centres in blocking or desensitizing the feelings of pain.
However, the pain in all ways is quite a complex sensation both in its physiology and in the way that it is experienced by individuals. The sensation of pain to a particular degree may be felt in different ways by different persons or even by the same person at different times. Many patients have been found to be relieved of discomfort and agony through hypnosis or suggestion. It has led us to believe that the higher areas of the cerebral cortex (other than sensory areas) exert considerable influence on pain, modifying in some ways the reception and transmission of impulse.
The body senses
The body senses include the Kinesthetic and the Vestibular sense. These senses help us to maintain the balance of our body at the time when we stand, walk or stumble. With their help we are able to reach for objects accurately and manipulate them or even head for the right direction.
The kinesthetic sense
This sense plays a key role in relaying information about the position and movement of the parts of our body without actually observing or sensing them through our sense of vision. There is no one specific organ allotted to the Kinesthetic sense. The Kinesthetic receptors are scattered throughout the muscles and joints of our body. Nerve fibres from these receptors join together with the nerve fibres from the organs of the skin just before they enter the spinal cord for carrying Kinesthetic sense messages from one part of the body to the cerebral cortex almost in the same way as the skin receptors do.
The vestibular sense.
The vestibular sense related with equilibrium is concerned with the sensation of movement and changes in orientation of the head. It does more than just relaying information about body position. It helps us to run without falling, to walk on a high wirestrung stretched between two poles, to catch ourselves when we trip, to keep our balance on a bumpy air plane trip or a swaying bus, etc. The receptors for the vestibular sense lie in the inner ear. The vestibular system consists of three semicircular canals, arranged at right angles to one another and two sac-like chambers. The semicircular canals have enlarged ends containing receptor cells that respond to any movement or rotation of the head. The receptors in the utricle and Saccula respond to the changes in the position of the head with respect to the direction of gravity. The pattern of excitation of the receptor cells helps the brain to identify the position of the head with respect to gravity. When the vestibular sense receptors are stimulated harshly or abruptly—this occurs when we are in a boat on rough seas—it may cause dizziness and nausea. However, we can adapt to nearly any such outcomes, even the loss or damage of the vestibular system, on account of our ability to adjust and the assistance rendered by our visual and Kinesthetic systems.
SUMMARY
Human beings are found to possess at least nine senses: vision, hearing, smell, taste, pressure, temperature, pain, the vestibular and Kinesthetic sense. Each of these senses help us to become aware or conscious of the nature of a particular stimulus coming in contact with our senses. This awareness is termed as sensation and the quality of the sense organ like ear or eye which helps us in feeling one or other type of sensation is known as sensitivity.
Measurement of sensation or sensitivity (detection and discrimination of stimuli) is carried out through two different measures (i) the absolute threshold—the minimum intensity of physical energy of a stimulus that may produce any sensation at all in a person and (ii) the difference threshold—the smallest change in stimulation that a person can detect, also called the just noticeable difference (j.n d.)
Sense of vision is considered most important in humans as it supplies to them the greatest amount of information (about 80%) of the external world. The physical stimulus for the sense of vision is light which is received by the receptor cells (rods and cones) of the retina. When the light falls at the rods and cones it activates them and sets up neural impulses, a coded message that is sent to the visual area of the brain for inducing the sensation of vision.
Adaptation: is a unique property—exhibited by our sense organs. It comes into the picture when a receptor responds in a decreasing manner to continuing stimulation. The receptors in our visual system exhibit three types of adaptation, namely retinal adaptation, the dark adaptation and the light adaptation.
The rods are mainly responsible for night vision, the capacity of seeing in the dark; while the cones operate mainly in daylight and help us to see colour. The shift in the operations of reflector cells (rods to cones or vice versa) causes a peculiar light sensation effect known as Purkinje effect—shift in the visibility of the colour in terms of day and night vision depending upon their respective wave lengths. The visible spectrum of colours to which cones and rods can respond is called colour vision. In general, this spectrum, to most of us, is divided into seven colours. The phenomenon concerning mixing oF combining of colours available in our visible spectrum is called colour mixture. As a result we may perceive the combining effect of the colours i.e., green as the mixture of yellow and blue, The other important phenomenon belonging to colour vision is colour blindness the defects in colour vision which makes a person to see some or all colours.
How we see colours can be explained through the theories of vision. According to Young Helmholtz Trichomatic theory, the eye contains three different kinds of colour receptors that respond to red, green and blue light, respectively. By mixing these three basic colours, the eye can detect any colour in our visible spectrum.
The Opponent process theory accepts the notion of three separate kinds of receptors, but holds that each responds to either member of three basic colour pairs—red and green, yellow and blue, and black and white (producing two opposite qualities of sensation). The evaluation of these two theories may reveal that both theories may be correct at different stages of the visual process.
The physical stimuli for the sense of hearing are sound waves. Sound waves cause the eardrum to vibrate, which sets in motion the hammer, the anvil and the stirrup. The stirr up strikes the oval window, which transfers the vibration to the fluid in the cocklea. The basilar membrane then moves up and down, and the receptor cells in the Organ of Corti cause their adjacent bipolar neurons to fire and then send a coded message of the sound heard to the auditory centres in the brain.
The place theory of hearing asserts that the pitch of a sound is dependent on the place of stimulation on the organ of corti (where the bisic receptor cells of hearing hie). The Frequency theory holds that pi‘ch is determined on the basis of the frequency of firing of nerve cells, not by the receptor in organ of corti but by the brain self through its auditory centres. The Volley theory while supporting the frequency theory explain how the nerve inpulses fire as rapidly as the frequency of highest pitched sound. It maintains that instead of a single nerve, several nerves would have to alternate in transmitting Volleys of impulses. A combination of the viewpoints of these theories may prove more useful in explaining pitch discrimination.
The receptors for the smell sensations are situated high in each nasal cavity, in the area called the olfactory epithelium. The smell sensations are directly carried to the brain through the axon of these receptors.
The receptor for the sense of taste which lies in the taste buds on the tongue activate these receptors to send coded message of the taste to the brain which tells us how we can experience the sense of taste.
The receptors for Sense of pressure are concentrated in the finger tips, lips and various other areas of free nerve and basket nerve endings, capable of spatial discrimination of pressure. The receptors fur the sense of temperature (warmth and cold) and pain lie in the free nerve endings of our skin. While for the temperature receptors there is no other place to reside, the receptors for pain may reside in muscles and body organs as well. All these three kinds of skin senso (pressure, temperature and pain) receptors send typical skin sensory message to the brain through the spinal cord for the necessary interpretation. ‘
The Kinesthetic and vestibular senses are called body senses. The Kinesthetic sense plays a key role in relaying information about the position and movement of the parts of our body without actually observing or sensing them through our sense of vision. The receptors for these sense are scattered throughout the muscles and joints of our body. The Vestibular sense tells us what position we are in with respect to gravity. The receptors for this sense.are located in the Vestibular organ in the inner ear.
References and Suggested Readings
Chaplin. James P and Krawiec, T.S., Systems and Thearies of Psychology (3rd ed.), New York: Holt, Rinehart & Winson Inc, 1974.
Corso, J.F.. The Experimental Psychology of Sensory Behaviour, New York: Holt, Rinehart & Winston Inc. 1967.
Geldard F.A., The Human Seises (2nd ed.), New York: John Wiley, 1972. Gibson, J.J., Senses Considered as Perceprual Systems, Boston: Houghton Mifflin, 1966.
Gregory, R L., Eye and Brain: The Psychology of Seeing (2nd ed.}, New York: Mc Graw-Hill, 1973.
Harper, R., Human Senses in Action, New York: Longman, 1972,
Mueller C.G., Sensory Psychology, Englewood Cliffs, New Jersey: Prentice-Hall, 1965.
Teevan, R.E. & Birney, R.D. (ed.); Colour Vision, Princeton, New Jersey: Vaa Nostrand, 1961.
Warshofsky. F. and Stevens, SS; Sound and Hearing (Rev. ed.), New York: Time Life, 1969.
Chapter 8
PERCEPTION AND ILLUSION
We always remain surrounded by the forces of our environment. Our sensory receptors are bombarded continuously by the various stimuli present in this environment. As a result we become aware of (although in a very typical selective way) some light, sound or chemical stimuli by experiencing some typical sensations. This awareness Or information about the stimuli is then relayed by our sensory transmitter to the centres of the nervous system.
Remember that the psychological process upto this stage is strictly contined to the feeling of some consciousness of awareness of one or the other stimuli present in our environment. Our eyes for instance, only make us aware of some light stimuli—it does not “‘see’’ the book or the pen. Our ears are aware of some auditory stimulation but cannot tell us that the train is whistling or birds are twittering. The question arises, then what happens inside our central nervous system? How are we helped in analysing, identifying, classifying, interpreting and deriving the meaning of the awareness or sensory impressions concerning the typical stimuli? In other words, how is our brain able to organise the transmitted sensory coded message concerning variety of stimuli of our world into some meaningful pattern? The answers to all these questions may be given through the psychology cof perception.
Let us first try to get aquainted with the meaning of the term perception.
Meaning of Perception The term perception may be defined as under:
E.G. Boring, H.S. Langfield & H.P. Weld: ‘‘Perception is the first ove the chain which leads from the stimulus to action.’ (1948, p. 10). _ Charles G. Morris: ‘‘All the processes involved in creating meaningful patterns out of a jumble of sensory impressions fall under the general category of perception.” (1979, p. 325). Edmund Fantino and G.S. Renolds: ‘‘Perception is the organising process by which we interpret our sensory input.” (1975, p. 262). O. Desiderato, D.B. Howieson & J.H. Jackson: ‘Perception is the experience of objects, events or relationships obtained by extracting niformation from and interpreting sensations.”’ (1976, p. 128)
R.E. Silverman: ‘‘Perception is an individual’s awareness aspect of vehaviour, for it is the way each person processes the raw data he or she receives from the environment, into meaningful patterns.”’ (1979, p. 123).
From the above definitions we come to the following conclusions abc ut the nature and meaning of the term perception.
1. Perception is a’ process: Perception is essentially a process rather than being a product or outcome of some psychological phenomenon. If we talk in terms of systems approach, then, sensory impressions, gathered through our sensory organs, may be termed as INPUT. The way in which we finally behave or react to this gathered information may be taken as OUTPUT. Perception provides the necessary link in terms of PROCESS for converting INPUT into OUTPUT by way of organising and interpreting the sensory impressions.
2. Perception is the information extractor; Our sensory receptors are hombarded continuously by various stimuli present in our environment. It is difficult and rather impossible to react to all stimulation. A selection process is therefore essential. Perception performs this duty by extracting relevant information out of a jumble of sensory impressions and converting them into some meaningful pattern.
3. Perception is preparation to response. Perception is the first step towards the active behaviour of an organism. It is the preparatory stage that prepares an individual for action and response. Our sensory receptors are just the receiving and transmitting centres of the sensory information. How we should react and respond is ordered by our central nervous system through the involvement of some mediating activily know as perception.
4. Perception involves Sensation: In a simple and straightforward way, we may sense that sensation precedes perception. The relationships between sensation and perception is always direct, that is, what we do have in sensation is always a part of perception. Perception goes beyond sensation as it organises, interprets and gives meaning to the result of sensations. Therefore, to a student of Psychology, perception means assigning meaning to sensory stimuli. Sensation, attached with some meaning is thus termed as perception.
5. Perception provides organisation: In addition to the heip provided in deriving meaning to sensory impressions, perception also helps in its proper arrangement and organisation. This arrangement or organisation reflects a particular pattern rather than being merely a summation of the sensory impressions. What one perceives, he perceives as a whole in an organised pattern and not as the sum total of various stimuli.
6. Perception is highly individualized: Perception by all means, is an individual affair. Different individuals do not perceive objects, events or relationships in much the same way. Even individual perceptions of the same event may vary. For example, a hawker selling the commodities in the open ground and a farmer standing in his farm are likely to perceive rain in quite different ways. The same rain may cause a quite different perception for the same farmer at the harvesting season. It is because the perception is always influenced by the internal bodily factors as well as the psychological factors like attention, expectations, motivation and past -experiences with the stimuli, etc.
A closer look at the nature and characteristics of perception may help us to derive a somewhat useful definition in the following form:
Perception is a highly individualized psychological process that helps an organism in organising and interpreting the complex patterns of sensory stimulation for giving them the necessary meaning to initiate his behavioural response.
Perceptual organisation
As we have seen our senses react to patterns of stimuli present in our environment. Perception organises that stimulation, it interprets the patterns and gives them meaning. The question here arises how does this perceptual organisation take place. This phenomenon was first studied properly by a group of German psychologists known as the Gestaltists. Notable among these psychologists were Max Worthemer Kurt Koffxa and Wolfgang Kohler. The word ‘gestalt’ coming from the German, means configuration, totality or whole. Gestalt psychologists tried to study perception in terms of Gestalts or wholes. They asserted that what we perceive in terms of an object, we perceive it in terms of its totality or a whole and not merely a random collection of its constituents or parts. They found that individuals tend to organise environmental stimuli into some meaningful patterns or wholes according to certain principles.
The Gestaltists discovered over hundred principles or laws concerning the perceptual organisation. Similarly there are other psycologists who put other theories and principles like adaptation level for explaining the mechanism of perceptual organisation. Below we would like to discuss some of these important principles:
The principle of Figure-Ground relationship
According to this principle, a figure is perceived in relationship to its background. A tree is a figure that appears against a background of a sky. Similarly the words are figures that appear on the background of a page. The perception of the object or figure in terms of colour, size, shape, intensity and interpretation etc., depends upon the figure-ground relationship. We perceive a figure against a background or background against a figure depending upon the characteristics of the perceiver as well as the relative strength of the figure or ground.
Sensory experiences other than visual experiences may also ve perceived as figure and ground. A person who is eating a meal that tastes too salty will perceive salt as a figure on a ground of chapaties and vegetables. We smell, listen and watch particular odour, news and figures of television (figure) and at the same time are aware of the conversations going on and various objects present in the room (ground).
A proper figure-ground relationships is quite important from the angle of the perception of a figure or the ground. In case where such relationship does not exist we may witness ambiguity in terms of clear perception as may be revealed through the following figure (the famous Rubin’s Vase) depicting reversible figure-ground perception.
Here the pattern shown above may be perceived in two plausible ways depending on which of the two shapes, vase or two faces, is perceived as the figure and which as background. Moreover, it 1S impossible to perceive both figure and background at the same time.
Principle of closure
Anotker important principle of perceptual organisation is that of closure. According to this principle, while confronting an incomplete pattern one tends to complete or close the pattern or fill in sensory gaps and perceives it as a meaningful whole. This type of organisation is extremely helpful in making valuable interpretation of various and complete object patterns or stimuli persent in our environment.
Principle of Grouping
Principle of grouping refers to the tendency to perceive stimuli in some organised meaningful patterns by grouping them on some solid basis like similarity, proximity and continuity.
(i) On the basis of similarity, objects or stimuli that look alike are usually perceived as a unit.
(ii) On proximity basis objects or stimuli that appear close to one another are likely to be perceived as belonging to the same group. proximity appear as a square while the same sixty-four cubes grouped in four appear as sixteen squares.
iii) On continuity basis, the objects or stimuli are perceived as a unit Or group on the basis of their continuity by selecting the dot cord instead of breaking the continuity by selecting b or a. [t explains why our attention is being held more by continuous patterns rather than discontinuous ones.
Principle of simplicity
According to this Gestaltian principle, who tend to imterpret our sensory stimulation so that we perceive the simplest possible pattern. The Simplicity or ‘Configurational goodness’ (in the language of Gestalt psychology) of a figure is said to observe the general rule that the information about the parts is able to provide knowledge of the whole. Thus the characteristic like symmetry, unbroken lines and curves, compact areas and the perceiver’s familiarity with the figure all may contribute to figural simplicity because they enable the perceiver to perceive the whole from some of its parts.
Principle of contour
A contour is said to be a boundary between a figure and its ground. The degree of the quality of this contour separating figure from ground is responsible for enabling us to Organise stimuli or objects into meaningful patterns.
Principle of context
Perceptual organisation jis also governed by the principle of context i.e., the setting In which a perceived stimulus or object appears. A change in its context Is likely to bring a great change in its perception.
For example. the rain may be perceived by the same farmer, as different in different contexts. Similarly a word or phrase may mean different things in different contexts. An examiner may award higher marks to the same answer book in a pleasant context than in an unpleasant one.
Principle of contrast
Perceptual organisation 1s very much affected through contrast effects as the stimuli that are in sharp contrast to nearby stimuli may draw our maximum attention and carry different perceptual affects. For example the intensity or brightness of a colour is strongly affected by the presence or proximity of the contrasting background or figure. It may also lead to distortion of our perception as may be evident .
Principle of adaptability
According to this principle, the perceptual organisation for some Stimuli depends upon the adaptability of the perceiver to perceive the Similar stimuli. An individual who adapts himself to work before an Intense bright light will perceive normal sunlight as quite dim while for a person who adapts himself to work in a dimly lit dark room, the normal sunlight is likely to be perceived as very bright. Similarly our Senses of touch, smell, hearing may all get accustomed to a certain degree of stimulation and getting accustomed to this may strongly affect the interpretation of the related sensations.
Perceptual constancy
Perceptual constancy refers to the tendency to perceive the stimuli present in our environment as relatively stable and unchanging, even though in reality there may be alterations in sensory information by way of shape, size, colour, brightness or other characteristics. It is possible on account of our previous experience, knowledge and familiarity with a particular sensory stimuli. We tend to havea stable, regular and consistent perception of that particular stimuli despite the significant changes introduced in terms of the sensory impressions. For example, Red Fort is perceived as a red fort by day or night and from any distance or angle. We tend to perceive it as the same fort despite the changes in sensory information reaching the retina on account of alterations in distance, direction or illumination.
There are a number of different types of perceptual] constancy like shape constancy, size constancy, colour constancy, brightness constancy, or loudness constancy etc. Let us discuss a few of these important constancies.
Shape constancy
Shape constancy refers to the tendency of perceiving the shape of familiar objects as relatively stable, constant and unchanging despite the fact that the retinal images may vary greatly depending on the viewing angles. For example we tend to perceive the door of a classroom as rectangular no matter from which angle it is viewed. Actually, the rectangular door of the classroom projects a rectangular image on our retina only when it is viewed directly from the front. At other angles, the image will be trapezoidal. But it is the phenomena of shape constancy that makes us perceive the door as rectangular thus retaining the same familiar shape. Similarly a wall clock looking perfectly round, while standing in front of it is perceived by us as round, following the principle of shape constancy, even when it is viewed from an angle where the actual retinal image will be elliptical.
Size constancy
Size constancy refers to that type of perceptual constancy where the objects tend to retain their familiar size irrespective of the viewing distance. In actuality, the size of the retinal image of the object goes on decreasing as distance from the object increases but on account of the phenomena of size constancy, the object is not perceived as shrinking in its size. For example, the familiar object like a class-room teacher is likely to be perceived of the same size say 5 feet 8 inches and not as 4 or 3 feet even incase the actual retinal image get decreased in size on account of his moving from 10 feet in front of the class to 30 feet.
Brightness and colour constancy
Brightness or colour constancy refers to the tendency of perceiving the brightness, darkness, or colour of a familiar object as fairly constant or unchanged even if there has been a great change in the intensity of light reflected from it at different times in different places. It is only on account of this perceptual constancy that we happen to perceive a white wall to be the same shade of white in broad daylight as in the pale or dim light of the evening. Strictly in the real sense, according to the phenomenon of light sensation the wall must be perceived darker in the evening than in bright day-lght but the brightness or colour constancy makes us perceive it as of the same brightness or colour irrespective of the intensity of illumination. This is simply on account of our familiarity with the colour or brightness of the wall and this adaptation makes us observe colour or brightness constancy for the varying intensities of light reflected from it at different timings of the day.
All these types of perceptual constancy play a key role in making the world quite understandable and manageable for our harmonious adjustment. Imagine what would have happened to us in the absence of this natural gift. Then for us this world of ours would have been a confusing barrage of shapes, sizes, degrees of brightness and colour. With the changed positions in terms of shapes sizes and colours etc., the perception of the objects would have been utterly confusing Jeading to road accidents while driving a vehicle. But by the will of God, we enjoy perceptual constancy based in our previous experience, knowledge and familiarity with the perceived objects that help our brain to interpret the sensory information in a stable and unchanging manner for understanding and manipulating it properly to good advantage.
Perception of space
Perception of space involves the problem of three dimensional perception. In visual perception of space an object in the environment is to be perceived in terms of three relationships to the viewer. height (up-down), width (left-right) and distance or depth (near-far). The retina on which all qur visual images are to be projected is flat. It has but two dimensions, height and width; it has no depth. The question arises then, how can we manage objects in the third dimension, depth or distance. It is possible on account of some specific visual cues that he’p us to respond accurately to the direction, distance and depth of a perceived object. These cues that help effectively in the distance and depth perception are divided into two classes monocular cues and binocular cues.
Visual monocular cues are those cues that have been derived from Vision with one eye, or monocular vision i.e., they are effective even if one eye is closed. In contrast to visual monocular cues, visual binocular cues, require binocular vision i.e., the vision with both eyes. Let us now discuss the role of both types of visual cues.
Visual monacular cues
There exists a number of visual monocular cues to depth and distance perception. A few important ones are as below.
I. Relative size: An important monocular cue for the perception of the distance of a familar object is provided in terms of its known size and the size now perceived through its retinal image. We know that the images of the objects located further in the distance are smaller on the retina than those of objects close at hand. This relative decrease in the size of retinal image can be effectively used as a cue for the judgement of distance and depth. While viewing from the roof of a multistorey building or window of a flying airplane the size of the known stimuli, buses or other objects can provide us the idea of the relative distance. Similarly when we observe some painting or picture of an artist, the cue for the perception of distance is provided with the help of relative size. Here one person shown as being farther away than the other is depicted by reducing his size and showing him as smaller.
2. interposition: A second monocular cue is interposition. Interposition refers to a phenonienon in which one object partially blocks another object lying in the same line of vision. As a result of this cue, the first object that cuts off the view of the other is perceived as being closer and the other one as more distant.
3. Linear perspective: Linear perspective provides an important cue to depth and distance. Ihe classic examples of such perception based on this cue may be provided through rail road tracks, telephone wires, sides of a road, etc. This cue is based on the principle that straightlines appear to merge in the distance and the more the hnes converge the greater is our impression of the distance.
4. Light and shadows: The appropriate distribution of lights and shadows can provide another important cue to distance and to depth. Generally the darker shade showing shadow gives perception of depth and distance. Therefore, in any drawing or picture the distant objects arejshown darker and nearner objects.
Shadowing may also help in the perception of a three dimensional figure out of a two dimensional drawing. For example, the distribution of shadows and lights on the surface of a moon. ball or globe is able to provide them a three dimensional quality. We may thus perceive several craters or mounds on the surface of the moon and may add the perception of depth and distance to the ball or globe instead of perceiving them as some round object like flat disc
5. Texture gradient: A texture gradient may provide us With a good cue to physical distance and to depth. While the more densely packed and finer textures give the perception of distance. the spaced, detailed or rough textures give perception of nearness. In other words, the more dense the texture of a surface seems, the greater the distance or depth will be felt. For example when we look at any surface with regular linings such as shown in or texture the figural presentation becomes denser as distance increases.
6. Accommodation: Movement of our eye muscles to bring desirable changes in the shape of the eye lens (rounder or flatter) in accordance with the distance of the objects (nearer or farther away) in the field of vision is termed as accommodation. This change in the Shape of the lens on account of the phenomenon of accommodation Produces Kinesthetic sensations in terms of muscular tension in the muscles of the eye. We usually feel some eye muscle strain in focussing on a nearby object but little muscle strain when we focus on something far away. The degree of the intensity of muscle pain or lack of it, thus, may provide a good cue for the estimation of depth or distance.
7. Relative movement: In case we move our heads from side to side, the objects close to us are perceived as moving very quickly and those farther away are perceived as much more slowly. Similarly in our stationary position we perceive fast moving objects as being closer than slow moving objects. In case we are riding in a train, bus or car we may notice that the nearby trees or telephone poles seem to pass through our vision very rapidly, while distant hills and buildings seem to move fairly slowly. All these examples are concerned with the relative movement of the observer and the objects. It gives birth to a phenomenon of motion parallex, the apparent motion of the objects with regard to the position of an observer, which provides us some very important cues to depth and distances of the objects.
Binocular cues
Binocular vision requiring both eyes often provides more important cues than monocular vision in distance or depth perception. We will here discuss two important binocular cues naming Retinal disparity and Convergence.
1. Retinal disparity: lf we look at an object first with one eye and then with the other, we do not see an identical image. This disparity in images is known as retinal disparity. Our eyes are set approximately 2½ inches apart in our head. While looking through our left eye, the image of an object is seen slightly to the left where with the help of our right eye it is seen slightly to the right. Yet, when we perceive an object with both eyes, a single fused image is perceived. This fusion that takes place in the brain, provides us an important cue to distance or to depth; or of the object’s three dimensionality.
2. Convergence: Another important binocular cue to distance and depth is given by the muscles controlling the convergence of the eyes. We can notice that while looking at a distant object, the lines of vision of our eyes are almost, parallel. As the object is brought nearer (within 40 or 50 feet), both our eyes ‘converge’ upon the object in order to focus it. In case, the object is too close, the two images remain separate because the eyes refuse to converge.
The phenomenon of convergence is controlled by the eye muscles. The degree of eye muscle movement varies with the degree of convergence and this variation resulting in the Kinesthetic sensations serves as distance and depth cue in the perception of objects in space.
3. Auditory Space Perception: For judging the distance and depth of the objects in space. we do not solely depend upon the visual senses. Other senses like sense of smell and hearing etc., can also play a leading role in the perception of distance. depth and direction. This is why blind persons, while depending much on their auditory sense may be found to have a very good perception of depth: direction and distance. They are able to respond accurately to the direction and distance of a sound. In auditory perception, like visual perception, we may have two types of cues monaural cues (requiring hearing bv one ear along) and binaural cues (requiring hearing by both the ears). While in the perception of distance, the use of one ear «lone dmonaural cues) is enough, in the perception of direction we need both ears (binaural cues).
Perception of distance
The two important monaural cues to distance are known as loudness of the sound and echolocation.
Loudness of the sound provides cues for the judgement of the distance of an object. Loud sound gives cues for nearby objects. whereas a weak and soft sound stands for relatively distant objects. Along with the degree of loudness of the sound the experiences or familiarity with the source of the sound also helps in the proper estimation of the distance. In such cases as roaring jet planes, ringing telephones, thundering clouds, whistling trains, we can visualise the degree of the loudness expected from these sources in relation to their distance and are thus able to estimate the distance of the source of the sound.
In echolocation, we are supposed to judge the distance of an object, by emitting sounds and then taking note of the time taken for the return of their echoes. This phenomenon is similar to the way in which flying objects are located by radar. Blind people make use of this phenomenon for judging the distance of obstacles in their path. For this purpose, they usually tap their canes against the ground surface as they walk. Organisms like bats and dolphins also make use of this phenomenon for locating their foods and covering the distances by avoiding the obstacles in their paths.
Perception of direction
The cues with regard to the direction of the sound source is provided with the binaural cues like time difference cues and intensity difference cues.
Time difference cues help us to judge the left or right direction of the so.ind source. Since our ears are located on the left and right sides of our head, a sound wave coming from either side is bound to reach one ear before it reaches the other. This time difference (although less than one ten thousandth of a second) proves a sufficient base for accurate estimation of the direction of a sound source particularly of medium and low frequency tones.
Intensity difference cues prove quite helpful in locating the direction of the high frequency tones. Difference in the intensity of sounds reaching the two ears is referred to as intensity difference. This difference is because of the fact that sound waves coming from the sight or left side of the listener have to bend around the head to reach the farther ear. The head works as an obstacle and as a result some of the sound waves are blocked and do not reach the far ear at all. Thus the far ear receives a less intense sound in comparison to the other ear. Such intensity differences help in providing good cues for judging the direction of the sound source.
In this way, the joint efforts of monaural and binaural cues help us, to a great extent, to localize sounds in space in terms of distance as well as direction. However for determining the front-back, and upward-downward location of the sound one has to tlt slightly one’s head at an angle. In addition to this, the past learning experiences also play. a key role in estimating the location of a sound source. For example when we listen to the sound of a roaring Jet plane or thundering clouds we tend to look up by raising our heads. This experience coupled with the movement of our head and monaural as well as binaural cues provide us with a remarkable ability to locate the source of the sounds in space.
Perceptual illusions
Perceptual illusions represent gross misjudgement or false perception. The sensory information received by our sensory receptors is interpreted and given some meaning through the process of perception. Sometimes this interpretation goes wrong so that the resulting perception fails to correspond with reality. Such false perception or gross misinterpretation of the sensory information are called perceptual illusions.
Perceptual illusions differ in their nature and characteristics. Different illusions often have different sets of principles for explaining the cause of illusion. Let us try to examine a few well known types of illusions.
illusions of size: illusion of this type provides false perception of the size of the objects. For example a football in the hands of a child may be perceived larger than one in the hands of an adult despite the fact that the football is virtually the same size in both Situations. Similarly. the moon tends to appear much larger when it is on the horizon than when it ts directly overhead. In all such cases, Illusion is caused on account of the change in the frame of reference or background. A larger background always makes the objects, in its frame of reference, look smaller in comparison to a smallert background where they will be perceived us larger. This fact may also be verified through the illusions such as depicted.
Can you tell which of the centre crcles in the above figure is larger? Although both of these circles are the same size, the one on the left looks larger. It is also due to the misleading impact of the Smaller and larger backgrounds.
Illusions of Length: which of the two lines in this figure is longer? Although both these lines are identical, yet the bottom line is perceived. as longer. This is the famous Muller-Lyer illusion. It is caused on account of our interpretation of angles at the ends of the lines as perspective cues.
Illusion of perspective which of the two rectangular pieces skept between the railroad tracks in a larger in size? although both of the species are identical, yet the top of the looks longer than bottom one this is the famous Ponzo illusion. It is cost and account of misleading perspective cue as we hasten to add The third dimension (depth) to the stimulus. The top rectangular pieces thus, Looks largest simply because it appears to the farther away.
Illusions of Curvature: are the two horizontal lines straight and parallel? Although these lines are actually straight and parallel, yet they appear to be bowed. You may find it impossible to perceive them as straight and parallet, even if you are told the truth. Such illusions of curvature are supposed to be the result of eye movements and a tendency to over-estimate acute angles.
The Horizontal-Vertical Illusions: which of the two lines in the figure is longer? Although both the vertical and horizontal lines are physically equal in length, the vertical line is most often perceived as longer. Such horizontal-vertical illusions mainly result from the shape of our field of vision which is generally that of
a horizontal ellipse. In the perception of vertical line, the vertica} movements of the eye is supposed to produce more muscular strain as compared to horizontal movement in the perception of a horizontal line. The greater degree of strain, thus felt may cause horizontal-vertical illusion resulting in the perception of the vertical line as longer. .
Illusions of Movement: Quite often, we perceive movement when the objects, we are looking at, are actually not moving at all. Such faulty perceptions’ are called illusions of movement. One illusion of such nature is known as autokinetic illusion where the faulty perception of movement is created by a single stationary object. If we enter a room that is completely dark except for a small spot of stationary light and stare at this light for a few seconds, the spot of light is perceived to move around. It happens because in the dark room, we do not get any cue to perceive that the spot of light is stationary and in such circumstances a slight movement of our eye muscles may create a false perception of the movements of the spot-light.
A second type of illusion of movement is created through induced motion. When. we watch the sun under a cloud, it appears to be in motion. Here the cloud in fact remains in motion. In the framework of the sky, the clouds are perceived as the ground and the sun as the figure. On account of the figure-ground relationship, an apparent motion is induced and we get a faulty perception that the sun (figure) is moving through the clouds (ground).
Another type of illusion of movement is based on the phenomenon of Stroboscopi¢ motion—a kind of apparent or false motion usually perceived in movies and television. On the screens of movie and television still picturés, in a series are projected separately in rapid succession. On account of this rapid presentation we perceive a smooth flowing movement instead of the series of discrete still pictures.
Stroboscopic motion is also responsible for an illusory phenomenon, called phi-phenomenon This phenomenon was first discovered and successfully demonstrated in 1912 by a German Gestalt psychologist, Max Wertheimer. He showed that if two short parallel lines of light are projected one centimeter apart in a dark room at intervals between 30 and 200 thous thous of a second, the light ts perceived as moving from one position to the other. In our daily life we often come across such illusory movements such as when we perceive movements in the stationary neon signs on an advertising board where words appear to move from one end of the board to the other as different combinations of stationary lights are flashed on and off.
SUMMARY
Perception is a highly individualized psychological process that helps an organism in organising and interpreting the complex
patterns of sensory stimulation for giving them the necessary meaning to initiate his behavioural response.
Perception, thus, is concerned with the task of organising environmental stimuli into some meaningful patterns or wholes according to certain principles. Psychologists have discovered over hundred principles or laws concerning the perceptual organisation. The Principle of Figure ground relationship stands for the perception of a figure in relationship to its background. Principle of closure describes the tendency to complete or close an incomplete pattern. Principle of grouping refers to the tendency to perceive the stimuli by grouping them on the basis of similarity, proximity and continuity. Principle of simplicity advocates perceiving the simplest possible pattern. Principle of contour asks for the degree of the quality of the contour, separating figure from ground. Principle of context demands a meaningful change in the setting in which a perceived stimulus appears. Principle of contrast lays emphasis on care of the contrast effects in perceptual organisation and Principle of adaptation advocates that we develop an adaptation level that acts as a standard by which we judge or compare stimuli. Perceptual constancy refers to a tendency to perceive the stimuli as relatively stable and unchanging (despite changing sensory images). Constancy can occur in the form of shape (shape constancy), size (size constancy) and colour (colour constancy).
Perception of space: Perception of space involves the problem of three dimensional perception i.e., height, width and depth or distance. In visual perception we can perceive depth or distance through monocular cues (from one eye) or binocular cues (requiring both eyes). Visual monocular cues to depth or distance include relative size, interposition, linear perspective, light and shadows, texture gradient, accommodation and relative movement. In binocular cues we include cues like retinal disparity and convergence.
In judging the distance and depth of the objects in space, one can rely on other sensory systems like sense of smell and hearing etc., besides his visual senses. In auditory space perception, the perception of distance may be carried out only through monaural cues (requiring one ear) like loudness of the sound and echolocation. However in the perception of direction of the sound source, binaural cues (requiring both ears) like time difference and intensity difference are needed.
Perceptual Illusions represent gross misjudgement or false perception of the sensory information. illusions of size provides false perception of the size of the objects. It is caused on account of the Change in the frame of reference or background. illusion of length like famous Miuller-Lyer illusion is caused on account of our interprelation of angles at the ends of the lines as perspective cues. iIlusion of perspective like famous ‘‘Ponzo illusion’’ is caused on account of misleading perspective cue. illusions of curvature are supposed to be resulted from eye movements and a tendency to over estimate acute angles. The horizontal-Vertical illusions result from the shape of our field of vision which is generally that of a hotizontal ellipses illusions of movement involves the perception of movement in objects that are actually standing still. The autokinetic illusion refers to the apparent motion created by a single stationary object. A second type of illusory movement is created through induced motion produced by the false perception of figure-ground relationship. Another type of illusion of movement is based on the phenomenon of Stroboscopic motion—a kind of apparent motion usually perceived in movies and television. Stroboscopic motion is also responsible for an illusory phenomenon, known as phi phenomenon e.g., perception of.an apparent movement in the stationary neon Signs on an advertising board.
References and Suggested Readings
Bartley. S. H., Principles of Perception (2nd ed. ), New York: Harper & Row, 1969.
Beadslee, D. and Wertheimer, M., Readings in Perception, Princeton: Van Nastrand, 1958.
Boring, E.G., Langfield, H.S. ‘and Weld, H.P. (Ed.), Foundations ‘of Psychology. New York: John. Wiley, 1948.”
Desiderato, O.. Howieson. D.B. and Jackson J.H., lmvestigating BehaviourPrinciples of Psychology, New York: Harper & Row, 1976.
Fantino, Edmund and Renold, G.S., Introduction te Contemporary Psychology, San Francisco: W.H. Freeman & Co: 1975,
Gibson, E.J., Principles of Perceptual Learning and Development, New York: , Appleton-century-crofts, 1969.
Gombrich, E.H., Art and Ulusion: A Study in the Psychology of Pictorial Presentation (4th ed.), London: Phaidon, 1972.
Gregory, R.L., Eye and Brain: The Psychology of Seeing, New York: McGraw Hill, 1966.
Gregory R.L. and Gombrich, E.H., Ji/usion in Nature and Art, New York: Scribners, 1974.
Kaufman, L.; Sight and Sound, New York: Oxford University Press, 1974. Machlis, J; The Enjoyment af Music (3rd Ed ), New York: Norton, 1970, Melzack, R., The Puzzle of Pain, New York: Basic Books, 1973.
Moris, Gane G., Psychology (3rd Ed.) Englewood Cliffs, New Jersey’ Prentice, a
Rock, J, Aun Introduction to Perception, New York: Macmillan, 1975,
Silverman, R.E., Essentiols of Psychology (2nd ed.), Englewood Cliffs, New Jeraey. Prentice Hall, 1979.
Weintraub, D. and Walker, E.L,: Perception, Belmont Calif: Brooks Cole, 1966.
9/16 @ glossary General Psychology
THINKING, REASONING AND PROBLEM-SOLVING
The cognitive abilities like thinking, reasoning and problemsolving may be considered as some of the chief characteristics of human beings that separate them from other species including higher animals. What we see in the form of a good poetry, a highly developed computer machine or robot, a beautiful painting, a magnificent building are the products of the thinking, reasoning and problemsolving abilities of their creators and inventors. Not only that but what has been given to us by these creators and inventors can: only be fully understood. appreciated and brought into our service if we are able to make judicious use of our thinking and reasoning powers. The challenges and problems faced by the individual, or society in general, may be solved through some serious efforts involving thinking and reasoning. Thinking and reasoning powers may thus be considered as an essential tool for the welfare of the individual as well as the society. In the present chapter we will try to know something about the process of thinking, reasoning and problem-solving behaviour of human beings.
THINKING
Define Thinking : Thinking is an incredibly complex process and a most difficult concept in psychology to define or explain. However, the thinkers have left no stone unturned in their quest for achieving some results, and have succeeded in coming up with dozens of different definitions. Let us begin with the reproduction of a few such definitions.
Valentine : “‘In strict psychological discussion it is well to keep the thinking for an activity which consists essentially cf a connected flow of ideas which are directed towards some end or purpose” (1965, p. 278).
Ross : ‘‘Thinking is mental activity in its cognitive aspect or Mental activity with regard to psychological objects. (1951, Pp. 196-97).
Garrett: ‘Thinking is behaviour which is often implicit and hidden and in which symbols (images, ideas, concepts) are ordinarily employed (1968. p. 378).
Mohsin: ‘Thinking is an implicit problem-solving behaviour” (1967 p. 117).
Gilmer : ‘“‘Thinking is a problem-solving process in which we use ideas or symbols in place of overt activity’ (1970 p. 326).
Definitions like the above may be divided into two categories. In the first category we have the definitions which maintain that thinking is a process of internal representation of external events (belonging to past, present or future). We may think about a thing or an event ever when it is not actually manipulated or observed by us. In the second category, we may include the definitions which describe thinking in terms of problem-solving behaviour. The definitions falling in the second category, are more concrete and function better than the first one because they do not rely on unobservable internal representations but rather define thinking as problem-solving activity that can be readily studied and measured (Fantino & Reynolds, 1975, p. 166).
Actually, whatever the apparent difference, these two classes of definitions tell the same story. The internal representation helps in problem-solving behaviour and problem-solving behaviour provides evidence for the existence of internal representation. Therefore, what iS representational may be used as functional and vice versa. The process of thinking and the product of thinking are both actually assessed by what we get as a result of thinking. The manner in which individuals think can always be inferred from their behaviour. Internal representation of mental explanation of the thing or events (the internal behaviour) should be made an essential aspect of the thinking process used in problem-solving behaviour. Therefore in a workable definition of ‘thinking’ we must try to combine internal behaviour with the product of thinking (the aims or purposes of thinking). In such a case, we may define thinking as below :
‘‘Thinking refers to a pattern of behaviour in which we make use of internal representations (symbols, signs etc.) of the things and events for the solution of some specific purposeful problem.”’
Nature of thinking
The meaning of the term ‘thinking’ as discussed in the preceding pages is further elucidated in the following lines :
(i) Thinking is essentially a cognitive activity.
(ii) It is always directed to achieve some end or purpose. In genuine thinking we cannot let our thoughts wonder on withOut any definite end in mind as happens in the case of daydreaming and imagination.
(iii) Thinking is described as a problem-solving behaviour. From the beginning to the end, there is some problem around which the whole process of thinking revolves. But every problemsolving behaviour is not thinking. It is only related to the inner cognitive behaviour.
(iv) In thinking there is mental exploration instead of motor exploration. One has to suspend immediately one’s overt or motor activities while engaging in thinking through some or other types of mental exploration.
(V) Thinking is a symbolic activity. In thinking there is a mental solution of the problem which is carried out through some signs, symbols, and mental images.
(vi) Thinking can shift very rapidly, covering an expanse of time and space almost instantaneously.
Elements of thought (Tools of Thinking)
The various elements involved in the thinking process may be summarised as under. In the process of thinking we usually rely on these elements or tools.
1. Images : Images, as mind pictures, consist of personal experiences of objects, persons or scenes once actually seen, heard or felt. These mind pictures symbolise the actual objects, experiences and activities. In thinking, we usually manipulate the images instead of actual objects, experiences or activities.
2. Concepts : A concept is a ‘general idea’ that stands for a general class and represents the common property of all the objects, or events of this general class. The concepis as a tool economise our efforts in thinking. For example when we listen to the word ‘elephant’ we are at once reminded not only about the nature and qualities of the elephants as a class but also our particular experiences and understanding about them emerge from our consciousness that stimulate our present thinking.
3. Symbols and Signs : Symbols and signs represent and stand as substitutes for actual objects, experiences and activities. In this sense they cannot be confined to words and mathematical numerals and terms. Traffic lights, railway signals, school bells, badges, songs, flags, and slogans all stand for the symbolic expression. These symbols and signs stimulate and economise thinking. They at once tell us what to do or how to act. For example, the waiving of the green flag by the guard tells us that the train is about to move and we should get in the train. Similarly, the mathematical symbol for subtraction (—) tells a child what he has to do. The conclusion drawn by Boring, Langfield and Weld for emphasizing the role of symbols and signs into the process of thinking is worth mentioning. They write ‘Symbols and Signs are thus seen to be the pawn and pieces with which the great game of thinking is played. It could not be such a remarkable and successful game without them” (1961, p. 199.)
4. Language: Language is the most efficient and developed vehicle used for carrying out the process of thinking. When one listens or reads or writes words, phrases or sentences or observes gesture in any language, one is stimulated to think. Reading and writing of the written documents and literature also help in stimulating and promoting our thinking process.
5. Muscle activities. Thinking in one way or the other shows evidence of the involvement of a slight incipient movement of groups of our muscles. It can be easily noticed that there are slight muscular responses when we think of a word, resembling the movements used when we utter the word aloud. A high positive correlation has been found to exist between the thinking and muscular activities of an individual. The more we engage ourselves in thought, the greater 1s the general muscular tension and conversely as we proceed toward muscular relaxation, our thought processes gradually diminish.
6. Brain Functions: Whatever may be the role of muscles, thinking is primarily a function of our brain. Our mind or brain is said to be the chief instrument or reservoir for carrying out the process of thinking. Whatever is experienced through our sense organs carries no meaning and thus cannot serve a stimulating agent, an instrument or object for our thinking unless the same is received by our brain cells and properly interpreted for driving some meaning. The mental pictures or images can be stored, formed, reconstructed or put to some use only through the functioning of the brain. Therefore, what happens in our thought process can simply be called a game, function or product of the activities of our brain.
Role of rigidity, set, direction and interest in thinking
Set may be inferred either to a kind of habit or to the way we are used to perceiving certain situations. Our thinking, reasoning and problem-solving behaviour are all largely affected through the inducement of sets. What goes previously in our perception or experience makes the base for our present and future thinking. We just do not want to deviate from this already set path of our thinking and this causes a lot of rigidity in our behaviour. As a result, we just do not wantto be bothered with methods, facts or new ideas. We always select the same path (decided on the basis of previous set), have the same likes or dislikes, biased or over simplified ways of thinking reasoning and problem-solving. The set that has been gained from previous experiences, surely interfere with subsequent thinking behavious. This reliance on a set way of thinking and habitual solution interferes with the thoughtful consideration of potential solution that is required for effective problemesolving. It mars the creative aspect of one’s endeavour. In brief, induction of a set in our thinking process which may help us in initiating some constructive thinking, after dependence on the set, leading to rigid habit of thinking (fixation of the thinking behaviour) may kill the potentiality for effective problem-solving and creativity in our behaviour.
The sets induced in our process of thinking are quite often the result of our interests, directions, purposes and goals of our accome plishments. How we should think, reason or engage in problem-solving can be understood and predicted. if one has a proper knowledge of our interests, attitudes, emotionality and goals of our hfe. One can think and reason within his own limits and these limits, to a certain extent, ure provided by the previous experiences in the form of sets, habits, interests and attitudes. This provides the foundation as well as the circumscribed boundaries in some cases for our thinking. It is both a boon or curse for our thinking, reasoning and problem-solving behaviour. It is a boon when the set procedures provide us with a lot of freedom and incentives in the form of various directives, alterna-tives and consequences: it is a curse when they bring rigidity and persistence in our ways of thinking by reducing the alternatives and choice of direction. ft may then lead to a stereotype behaviour, rigid thinking and completely destroys our initiative and potential for adequate problem-solving and creativity.
Types of thinking
Thinking, as a mental process, is usually classified into the following types:
l. Perceptual or concrete thinking: It is the simplest form of ‘hinking. The basis of this type of thinking is perception i.e., mterpretation of sensation according to one’s experience It is also named us concrete thinking as it is carried over the perception of actual or concrete objects and events.
2. Conceptual ur Abstract Thinking: Like perceptual thinking it does not require the perception of actual objects or events. It is an abstract thinking where one makes use of concepts; the generalised ideas and language. [t Is regarded as a superior type of thinking to perceptual thinking as if economizes efforts in understanding and problem-solving.
3. Reflective Thinking: It is somewhat of a higher form of thinking. It can be distinguished from simple thinking in the following ways:
(i) It aims at solving complex problems rather than simple problems.
(ii) It requires re organisation of all the relevant experiences and finding new ways of reacting to a situation or of removing an obstacle instead of simple association of experiences or ideas.
(iii) Mental activity in reflective thinking does not undergo any mechanical trial and error type of effort. There is an insightful cognitive approach in reflective thinking.
(iv) It takes logic into account in which all the relevant facts are arrangcd in a logical order, in order to get to the solution of the problem in hand.
4. Creative Thinking: This type of thinking is chiefly aimed at creating something new. It is in search of new relationship and associations to describe and interpret the nature of things, events and situations. It is not bound by any pre-established rules. The individual himself, usually, formulates the problem and he is free to collect evidence and to invent tools for its solution. The thinking of the scientists or inventors is an example of creative thinking.
5. Non-directed or Associative Thinking: In strict psychological sense, what we have discussed above in terms of the type or categories of thinking constitutes real or genuine thinking. It is essentially a directed thinking which pertains to reasoning and problem-solving procedures aimed at meeting specific goals. However, there are times when we find ourselves engaged in a unique type of thinking which is non-directed and without goals. It is reflected through day-dreaming, dreaming, free associations, fantasy, delusions and other flowing uncontrolled activities. In psychological language such forms of thought are referred to as associative thinking.
Day-dreaming, fantasy and delusions all fall in the category of withdrawal behaviour that helps an individual to escape from the demands of the real world by making his thinking non-directed and free-floating (placing him somewhere else or doing something else).
While there is nothing too serious or too abnormal in the behaviour involving day-dreaming and fantasy, the behaviour involving delusions definitely points towards abnormality. Day-dreaming and fantasy are also not quite the same. Fantasy is more self directed. Here one roams through his own private world by engaging himself in thinking like “if I could—” or “If – I were——— —”. In day-dreaming our thinking floats unconsciously in unexpected directions. Day-dreaming and fantasies have both positive and negative consequences. On the one hand, they may reflect our repressed desires and a kind of wishful thinking that occurs when our inner needs cannot be expressed in actual behaviour. It may urge an individual to seek retirement from his duties and responsibilities. He may avoid facing the realities of life and waste his energy and talents in day-dreaming or fantasy. On the other hand, day-dreaming and fantasy can prove quite constructive by providing opportunities for building cognitive and creative skills and belping in problemsolving behaviour. It can help in providing relief from harsh realities of life as well as a means of reducing internal tensions and external aggression.
Delusions, characterising abnormality in behaviour, may be defined as persistent thoughts or false beliefs which the individual defends vigorously by believing them to be absolutely true despite logical absurdity or proof to the contrary, and despite their serious interference with his social adjustment. The individuals suffering from delusions never stand for the correction in their thoughts or beliefs (which have no basis in reality and are often inconsistent with the individual’s knowledge and experience) by an appeal to reason.
Under the influence of such delusions one may think or believe that he is a millionaire, the ruler of the universe, a great inventor, a noted historian or even God. On the contrary, he may think himself the most incapable, unworthy or insecure creature in the world or may unnecessarily possess guilt feelings or complain thut he 1s suffering from some incurable physical or mental disease.
REASONING
Meaning and definition
Reasoning plays a significant role in adjusting to one’s environment. [t not only controls one’s cognitive activities, but also the total behaviour and personality is affected by the proper or improper development of one’s reasoning ability. It is essentially a cognitive ability and resembles thinking in so many aspects such as:
(i) Like genuine thinking, it involves a definite purpose or goal.
(ii) It is also an implicit act and involves problem-solving behaviour.
(iii) Like thinking here one makes use of one’s previous knowledge and experiences.
(iv) Like thinking there is mental exploration instead of motor exploration in reasoning as we try to explore mentally the reason or cause of an event or happening.
(v) Like thinking, reasoning is a highly symbolic function. The ability to interpret various symbols, development of concepts and linguistic ability helps much in reasoning.
On account of the above resemblance, it becomes difficult to distinguish between thinking and reasoning. However, reasoning is said to be a typical thinking—a productive and advanced stage in the complex process of one’s thinking. In comparison with thinking it is regarded as a more serious and complex mental process that needs a well organised brain. It also requires some deliberate efforts on the part of the individual who reasons.
The following definitions given by some eminent scholars can throw more light on the meaning and nature of process of reasoning.
Garrett: ‘Reasoning is step-wise thinking with a purpose or goal in mind (1968, p. 353).
Gates: ‘‘Reasoning is the term applied to highly purposeful controlled selective thinking” (1947, p. 428).
Woodworth: ‘In reasoning, items (facts or principles) furnished by recall, present observation or both; are combined and examined ‘0.See what conclusion can be drawn from the combination (1945, p. 523).
Skinner: ‘‘Reasoning is the word used to describe the mental recognition of cause-and-effect relationships. It may be the prediction of an event from an observed cause or the inference of a cause from an observed event’’. (1968, p. 529).
Munn: “Reasoning is combining past experiences in order to solve a problem which cannot be solved by mere reproduction of earlier solutions’’ (1967, p. 339)
A close analysis of the above definitions may reveal that reasoning depicts a higher type of thinking which is quite careful. systematic and organised in its functioning. It may follow some logical systeMatic steps as under:
(i) Identification of the goal or purposes for which reasoning is to be directed.
(ii) The mental exploration or search for the various possibilities, cause and effect relationships or solutions for realising the set goal or purposes based on previous learning or experiences and present observations or attempts.
(iii) Selection of the most appropriate possibility or solution by careful mental analysis of all the available alternatives.
(iv) Testing the validity of the selected possibility or solution, purely through mental exercise and thus finally accept or reject it for the actual solution of the problem
Reasoning in this way may be termed as a highly specialized thinking which helps an individual to explore mentally the cause and effect relationship of an event or solution of a problem by adopting some well organised systematic steps based on previous experiences combined with the present observ ation.
Types of reasoning
Reasoning may be classified into two broad types—Inductive reasoning and Deductive reasoning.
Inductive Reasoning: In this type of reasoning we usually follow the process of induction. Induction is a way of proving a statement or generalizing a rule or principle by proving or showing that if a statement or a rule is true in one particular case, it will be true in cases which appear in some serial order and thu, it may be applied generally to all such type of cases. Theretore, by starting from particular facts or special examples and instances one can formulate generalized principles and conclusions in this type of reasoning. For example the following are inductive, reasoning:
(1) Mohan is mortal; Radha is mortal: Karim is mortal; Edward is mortal. Therefore, all human beings are mortal,
(2) Iron expands when heated; waiter also expands when heated; air also expands when heated Therefore, all types of matter—solid, liquid and gas—expand when heated.
Deductive Reasoning: Deductive reasoning is just opposite to inductive reasoning. Here one starts completely agreeing with some already discovered or pre-established generalized fact or principle and tries to apply it to particular cases. For example the following are deductive reasoning:
(1) All human beings are mortal; you are a human being and, therefore, you are mortal.
(2) Matter expands when heated: iron is a form of matter and thus expands when heated.
PROBLEM-SOLVING
Meaning and definition
From birth onwards, everybody in this world is faced with some problem or the other. There are needs and motives that are to be satisfied. For this purpose definite goals or aims are set. in an attempt to realise them one experiences obstacles and interferences. It creates a problem for him which needs serious attention and deliberate effort on his part to overcome the obstacle or interference in the attainment of the objectives. For this purpose one has to sect one-self to think and reason and proceed systematically in a scientific manner.
The productive work asa whole discussed above is known ay problem-solving. It has been found very useful for the progress of an individual as well as of societv. The meaning and nature of this term is made clearer still through the following definitions.
Woodworth and Marquis: “Problem-solving behaviour occurs in novel or difficult situations in which a solution is not obtainable by the habitual methods of applying concepts and principles derived from past experience in very familiar situations.”’ (1948, p. 623).
Skinner: “‘Problem-solving is a process of overcoming difficulties that appear to interfere with the attainment of a goal. Itis a proce‘dure of making adjustment in spite of interferences’. (1968, p. 539).
Analysis of the above definitions bring the following facts into the lime-light with regard to the meaning and nature of problemsolving behaviour.
(i) In the satisfaction of one’s needs and realisation of the set goals, problem-solving behaviour arises only when (a) the goal is quite purposeful and essential for the individual, (b) there is serious interference in the realization of thts goal, (c) this interference or obstacle cannot be overcome by simple habitual acts or mechanical trisl and error methods.
(ii) The individual has to utilise his thinking and reasoning powers and engage in serious mental work (by following some well organised systematic scientific steps) for the removal of the difficulties and obstacles
(iii) The problem-solving behaviour involves quite deliberate conscious and serious efforts on the part of the problem-solver.
(iv) Problem-solving behaviour helps in the removal or adjustment with interferences and ultimately makes an individual reach his goal and satisfaction of his motives.
(v) Problem-solving behaviour helps an individual in the growth and development of his personality making him happy and wiser by getting him adequately adjusted. It also contributes a lot towards the progress and development of society.
Thinking on the above lines, problem-solving behaviour can be understood as a deliberate and serious act on the part of an individual to realise the set goals or objectives by inventing some novel methods or following some systematic scientific steps when the simple methods like trial and error, habit formation and conditioning fails to remove the imterferences and obstacles that stand in the path of the realization of these goals.
Scientific method of problem-solving
The question arises, what is that scientific procedure which 1S. followed in a problem-solving behaviour. Let us describe its systematic steps.
Problem-awareness: The first step in the problem-solving beha.iour of an individual concerns his awareness of the difficulty or problem that needs a solution. He must be confronted with some obstacle or interference in the path of the realization of his needs or motives and consequently he must be conscious of the felt difficulty or problem.
2. Problem-understanding: The difficulty or problem felt by the individual should be properly identified by a careful analysis. He should be clear about what exactly is his problem. The problem then should be pin pointed in terms of the specific goals and objectives. Thus all the difficulties and obstacles in the path of the solution must be properly named and identified and what is to be got through the problem-solving efforts should then be properly analysed.
3. Collectian of the relevant information: In this step, the individual is required to collect all the relevant information about the problem through all possible sources. He may consult experienced persons, read the available literature, revive his old experiences. think of possible selutions, and put in all relevant efforts for widening the scope of his knowledge concerning the problem in hand.
4. Formulation of hypotheses or hunch for possible solutions: In the light of the collected relevant information and nature of his problem, one may then engage in some serious cognitive activities to think of the various possibilities for the solution of one’s problem. AS a result, he may start with a few possible solutions of his problem.
5. Selection of a proper solution: In thts important step, all the possible solutions, thought of im the previous step, are closely analysed and evaluated. Gates and othets (1946) have suggested the following activities in the evaluation of the assumed hypotheses op solution:
(i) one should determine the conclusion that completely satisfies the demands of the problem;
(ii) one should find out whether the solution is consistent with other facts and principles which have been well established;
(iii) one should make a deliberate search for negative instances which might cast doubts on the conclusion.
The above suggestions can help the individual to think ofa proper individual solution of his problem out of the many possible solutions. But for all purposes he has to use his own discretion by utilizing his higher cognitive abilities for the proper identification of the appropriate hypothesis or solution by rejecting all other hypotheses.
6. Verification of the concluded solution or hypothesis: The solution arrived at or conclusion drawn must be further verified by utilising it in the solution of the various likewise problems. In case, the derived solution helps in solving these likewise problems, then and then only, one is free to agree with his findings regarding the solution of his problem. The verified solution, may then become a useful product of his problem-solving behaviour that can be ulilized in solving other future problems.
SUMMARY
Thinking refers to a pattern of behaviour in which we make use of internal representations of the things and events for the solution of some specific purposeful problems.
Tools employed in the process of thinking, generally consist of images (mind pictures of the stimuli experienced), concepts (categories for classifying stimuli), symbols and signs (like+, and badges or flags), and Janguage. In addition to this, thinking in one way or the other, produces evidence of the involvement of a slight incipient movement of groups of our muscles and by all means, guided and operated by higher cognitive areas of the brain. Moreover. our thinking is largely affected through the inducement of sets(kind of habit or the way used to perceive certain situations). These induced sets are quite often the results of our interests, directions and purposes. This set induction may result in a kind of rigidity in our thinking behaviour.
Thinking, what we consider as genuine, may be classified into Certain types like perceptual or concrete thinking, conceptual thinking, reflective thinking and creative thinking. However we can also add one more category in the name of associate thinking, including day creaming. fantasy and illusions, which is non-directed and without goals.
Reasoning is referred toa highly specialized thirking involving some well organised systematic steps for the mental exploration of a cause and effect relationship or solution of a problem. Reasoning is of two types—inductive and deductive. While in inductive reasoning we make use of many experiences and examples for arriving at a generalized principle or conclusion, in deductive reasoning we just start completely agreeing with some deduced results or principles and try to apply it to particular cases.
Problem-solving as a deliberate and serious act, involves the use of some novel methods. higher thinking and systematic scientific steps for the realisation of the set goals. The scientific steps involved may be identified as problem awareness, problem understanding, collection of relevant information, formulation of hypotheses and selection of a proper solution.
References and Suggested Readings
Bartlett, F., Thinking, New York: Basic Books, 1958.
Borirg E.C.. Langfield, HS. and Weld, H.P. (ed.), Foundation of Psychology, (Indian Edi), New York: John Wiley, 1961.
Davis, G A., Psvchology of Problem Solving, New York: Basic Books, 1973.
Fentino, E and Reynold. G., Introduction 10 Contemporary Psychology, San Francisco; W.H. Freeman & Co 1975.
Garrett, H.E.: General Psychology (Indian Edi.), New Delhi: Eurasia Publishing House, 1968.
Gates, A.G., Elementary Ps, chology (Reprint), New York: Macmillan, 1947. Gates, Al. and et. al., Educational Psvcholagy, New York: Macmillan, 1947. Gilmer, B Vonhaller, Psvcho/ogy (International Edi), New York: Harper, 1970. Mohsin, S.M , Elementary Povchology, Calcutta: Asia Publishing House, 1967.
Munn. N.L., Aa datroducrion to Psvchology (indian Edi.) Delhi: Oxford & IBH, 1967.
Ross, J.S , Ground of Educational Psychology, London: George G. Harrap & Co 195).
Skinner, C E. (Ed.): Essentials of Educational Psychology, Englewood, Cliffs, New Jersey: Prentice-Hall, 1968.
Valentine, C.W., Psychology and its Bearing an Education, London: The English Language Book Society & Methuen, 1965.
Vinacke, W.E,, The Psychology of Thinking (2nd ed.), New York: McGraw-Hill, 1974.
Wertheimer, M , Productive Thinking, New York: Harper, 1945. Woodworth R.S.. Psychology, London: Methuen, 1945.
Woodworth. R.S. and Marquis, D.G., Psvehology (Sth ed.’, New York: Henry Holt & Co., 1948.
Chapter 10
MOTIVATION OF BEHAVIOUR
What is motivation ?
We observe when a girl, while learning cycling gets bruises and cuts but she goes on to improve her performance by continued practice. Similarly an athelete may be seen to get up quite early in the morning and regularly visit the field for his continued practice irrespective of the odds of the seasons. A student may be seen to burn midnight oil as the examination draws nearer and nearer while another student of the same class at the same time may be seen enjoying the T.V. tilm or playing cards with his friends.
What makes the girl, the athlete and the students behave ina particular manner? The answer to such questions, related to ‘why’ and ‘how’ of behaviour lies in the key word ‘motivation’. Thev do or behave because they are motivated to do or behave in such manner. Motivation, thus may be regarded as something which prompts, compels and energizes an individual to actor behave ina particular fashion ata particular time for attaining same specific goal or purpose. But what is that which is responsible for the motivation of an individual. What are the real activating forces that push and pul] an individual to move or act for obtaining a specific goal? Psychologists have tried to provide some answer by naming these activating forces as needs, drives and motives. Let us try to learn about them.
Needs
Needs are general wants or desires. Every human being has to strive for the satisfaction of his basic needs if he is to maintain and actualize or enhance himself in this world.
Nothing can be said about the number of the individual needs. While some scholars hold that the number of individual needs is infinite, others have provided a dcfinite number, e.g. Murray has Given a list of thirty seven needs. In this text, for the sake of proper understanding and clarity we would like to divide the human needs into two broad categories, namely, Biological needs and Sociopsychological needs.
Biological needs: All our bodily or organic needs fall into this category. They may be further categorized as under:
(i) In this first category of biological! needs, we have need for oxygen, water and food. These needs are most fundamental for our survival and existence. Without them we can hardly survive.
(ii) In the chain of our survival and existence the other category of the biological needs includes needs like:
(a) Need for rest when tired (6) Need for being active when rested. (c) Need for sleep when deprived of it for long.
(d) Need for regular elimination of waste products from the body.
(e) Need for having an even internal body temperature.
(f) Need for protection from the threats of physical environment like hazards of weather, natural calamities, wild animals etc.
(iii) In the third category of biological needs, we can place the need for satisfaction of sex urge or desire to seek sex-experiences. Although sex urge is not essential for the survival of an individual yet it is the strongest human urge in the satisfaction of which lies his proper growth, development, adjustment and weil-being. Moreover, the satisfaction of this need and normal sex behaviour is most essential for a happy family life and the continuity and survival of the human Species.
(iv) In the last category of biological needs, we have needs that are associated with the demands of our senses. These sensory needs include the need for physical contact sensory stimulation and stimulus variability and manipulation. Although we may not die if deprived of these needs, yet they are supposed to be quite essential for our general welfare and optimal growth.
Socio-psychological needs
Under this category, we can list all those needs that are associated with the socio-cultural environment of an individual. They are acquired through social learning. Although such needs are not linked with the survival of the organism or species. yet their deprivation may lead to a psychological state seriously affecting his survival and welfare. These needs for tho sake of clarity may be classified as below:
1. The need for freedom or gaining independence: An individual possesses a craving for independence. Nature has created us free and independent as individuals and requires us to remain so. Therefore, all human beings have an urge to remain free and independent.
2. The need for security: Every one of us needs to feel secure not only to save himself from the physical dangers but also fiom sociopsychological angles he needs desirable emotional, social and economical security for his well being.
3. The need for love and affection: Every one of us irrespective of age, caste, colour and creed have a strong desire to love and be loved. Depending upon one’s age and circumstances. it may vary in kinds and nature, but a sort of emotional craving for the satisfaction of this need is exhibited universally by all living organisms.
4. The need to achieve: Every human being has a strong desire to achieve some or other things like money, fame, reputation, degree. merit position, medals, good life partner, spiritual attainment, etc.. not only for raising his status in the eyes of others but also for the satisfaction he gets out of his own accomplishment.
5, The need for recognitiun or social approval: Each one of us has an inherent desire for gaining recognition. appreciation and esteem at the hands of others. An artist may thus desire to be known for his art, a young woman may desire to be appreciated for her beauty. good manners or house keeping by fellow human beings especially the members of the group to which she belongs. A student may show this desire in surpassing other students of his class and thus gaining required social status, prestige or approval from his fellow students. teachers and parents.
6 The need for Social Company: Man is reterred to as a social animal in the sense that he has a strong urge to be with his own kind and maintain social relations with them. The real strength of this need can be felt by those individuals who are faced with social rejection or solitary confinement.
7. The need for self-assertion: Every one of us has an inherent desire to get an opportunity to rule or dominate others. It may vary in intensity from person to person but it is surely exhibited by all of us in one or other situations irrespective of age, strength and status. Some may show it to their juniors, servants, life partner or children while others may exhibit it towards their pet animals, birds, and even inanimate things like dolls or pictures This need of asserting oneself gives birth to an important motive called power motive that works as a strong determiner of one’s personality and behaviour.
8. The need for self-expression or self-actualization: We all have an inherent craving for the expression of our self and actualization of our own potentialities. An individual may have a hidden poet, musician or painter in his self and thus may have a strong desire to get his talent exhibited or nutured. In this way one wants to get adequate opportunities for the expression and development of his potentialities and subsequently he strives for and is not happy untl he gets opportunities for such expression and self-actualization.
Drives
A need gives rise to a drive which may be defined as an aroused reaction tendency or a state of heightened tension that sets up activities in an individual’ and sustains them for increasing his general activity level. The existence of a need moves or drives the individual from within and directs its activities to a goal that may bring about the satisfaction of the need. The strength of a drive depends upon the strength of the stimuli involving the related need.
Drives of any nature are divided into two categories. In the first category we have biological or primary drives such as hunger, thirst, escape from pain and sex drive. In the second category we have socio-psychological or secondary drives such as fear or anxiety, desire for approval, striving for achievement, aggression and dependence. These drives are not related to our physiological needs and therefore do not arise on account of tmbalances in the body’s internal functioning. They arise from the socio-psychological needs and are said to be acquired through social learning as a result of one’s interaction with his socio-cultural eavironment. These drives move an individual to act for the satisfaction of his socio-psychological needs which in turn proves as a reinforcer of the behaviour for the continuity and maintenance of the behaviour.
Contrary to the socio-psychological or secondary drives or biological drives are basically unlearned in nature. They arise from our biological needs as a result of a biological mechanism known as homeostasis.
For explaining the drive function, the term homeostasis was coined by W.B. Cannon, a prominent Harvard University physiologist. Cannon (1932) suggested that our body system constantly works toward an optimum level of functioning maintaining a normal state of balance between input and output. For example, when bloodsugar level drops, the brain, glands, stomach organs. and other parts of the body send out signals that activate a hunger drive and makes one hungry. After food has been consumed by the individual’s body, jt returns to a state of balance. This maintenance of an overall physiological balance is homeostasis. When there is an imbalance there is a need to restore balance; thus a drive arises which in turn serves as an instigator of behaviour.
The term homeostasis used by Cannon with reference to body chemistry has now been broadened to include any behaviour that upsets the balance of an individual. The demial or failure in the satisfaction of any basic need may bring imbalance psyche state, thus arising a drive primary or secondary for initiating a behaviour.
Drives and incentives
Drives are also influenced and guided by incentives. Praise, appreciation. rewards, bonus, fulfilment of one’s needs and getting the desired objectives are some of the examples of incentives.
Incentive works as a reinforcing agent as it adds more force to a drive like adding fuel to the already ignited fire. A piece of. tofee, chocolate or ice cream or a playing toy may work as an incentive for a body to give more strength to his drive and as a result be may be further motivated to act or behave in a desirable way. Similarly a favourite food may provide an incentive for an individual to eat or a favourite movie Mav compel other individuals to go and see it. In this way drives. whether primary or secondary, are greatly affected and directed by the incentives. These incentives work more forcefully in case the organism remains deprived for long of that particular incentive.
Motives
In search for the origin of a motivated behaviour, the psychologists, aS we have already emphasized above, start from the basic needs—biological or socio-psychological. A particular need gives lise to an activating force named as a drive that moves an individual to act or behave in a particular fashion at a particular time. Drives thus work as a basic activating force behind a behaviour. However, practically, in psychological as well as day-to-day language we usually come across statements like: what was the motive behind this crime? What may be the motive of an individual to criticise or blame us? etc. These statements clearly point out that motives work as a_ basic activating force behind a particular behaviour. It makes one think as to why the terms drive and motive (which carry the same meaning) are often employed interchangeably. However, psychologists while exp aining the mechanism of behaviour have now started to concentrate on the term motive instead of the old term drive. For clarity, they have tried to define it in the following ways:
Fisher: ‘‘A motive is an inclination or impulsion to action plus some degree of orientation or direction” (Labhsingh & Tiwari, 1971, p. 72).
Rosen, Fox and Gregory: ‘‘A motive may be defined as a readiness or disposition to respond in some ways and not others to a variety of situations’’ (1972, p. 41).
Caroll: ‘A need gives rise to one or more motives. A motive is a rather specific process which has been learned. It is directed towards a goal” (1969, p. 21).
All these definitions lead us to generalize that:
1. Motive is an inner state of mind or an aroused feeling.
2. It is generated through basic needs or drives.
3. It compels an individual to respond by creating a kind of tension or urge to act.
4. It is a preparation for responding in some selective way to the satisfaction of the related need.
5. It is a goal-directed activity, pursued till the attainment of the goal.
6. A change in goal may bring changes in the nature and strength of the motive.
7. Attainment of a goal helps in the release of tension aroused by a specific motive.
8. Motive may be considered as a learned response or tendency and also an innate disposition.
Understood in this way, a motive may beconsidered as an energetic force or tendency (learned or innate) working within the individual to compel, persuade or inspire him to act for the satisfaction of his basic needs or attainment of some specific purposes.
There exists a variety of motives based on the human basic needs. For understanding the nature and role of these motives let us_ briefly discuss a few important ones.
Hunger motive
Our body’s need for food is the basis of this motive. The longer we are deprived of food, the more we feel the intensity of this motive. More often, rumbling stomach or hunger pangs (caused by the contraction of the stomach) are taken as a hunger signal. It is quite misleading because these symptoms may be produced on account of temporal conditioning caused by eating about the same every day. On the basis of the lavoratory findings, it has been now agreed that the physiological key to hunger lies in the chemical composition of the blood and a structure in the brain called the hypothalamus. There lies a sugar called glucose in our blood which helps to provide energy to the body. It can be stored tn the liver only in small quantities and for a short time. When the amount of glucose in the blood (the blood-sugar level) falls below a certain point, a message is sent to the hypothalamus which in turn alerts an organism to its need for food. After cating, when the blood sugar level has risen the hypothalamus works for the inhibition of hunger messages. Two areas of the hypothalamus that are involved in the hunger mechanism have been identified. The lateral hypothalamus controls the ‘‘on’’ switch and thus sends out hunger signals, while the ventromedial hypothalamus performs the task of inhibition by controlling the ‘‘off” switch.
The physical mechanism of hunger as explained above tries to throw light on the working of hunger motive and eating behaviour. However, our eating behaviour is too complex to depend only on blood sugar levels and the hypothalamus. Recent researches have suggested that a number of other parts of the brain such as the limbic system and the temporal lobe may also play a major role in the human hunger drive. It has also now been experimentally proved that besides the chemical composition and brain mechanism certain other personal, social cultural and psychological factors like choice or preference for a specific food, one’s biological predisposition, boredom, loneliness, nervousness, insecurity, anxiety, depression, socio cultural demands, and acquired food habits, etc., work for decidin the eating behaviour of human beings.
Thirst motive.
This drive or motive arises out of the need for quenching one’s thirst. It is found to be stronger than the food motive as we can exist without food longer than we can without water. In the case of this motive, the apparent signals (like hunger pangs in hunger motive) come from the sensations of dryness from the mouth and the throat. However, as we have seen with hunger the thirst motive goes much deeper than that. The physiological key of the thirst motive (like hunger motive) lies in the imbalance of fluid in the body tissues and hypothalamus. Imbalance of the fluid in the body has been linked to the level of salt {Sodium chloride) in the blood stream. Salt causes dehydration. A high level of salt in the blood upsets the fluid balance in the tissues which in turn need to supply fluid to the body tissues. This message is conveyed to the lateral hypothalamus and thirst drive is activated. After getting the supply of the fluid in the form of a drink etc., the body’s chemical balance is restored. It activates our thirst satiety centre situated in the hypothalamus which In turn switch off the thirst drive.
In this way, it may be seen that while the chemical imbalance of the body instigate hunger or thirst motive, the centres of its control (in the form of ‘on’ and ‘off’ connections) lie in the central nervous system particularly in the hypothalamus. Similarly it may also be seen that human thirst behaviour depends not only on one’s biological predispositions.and chemical imbalance of the body tissues bul, to a large extent, it may be said to be a function of social learning. Why we drink, what we drink, when we drink and how we drink all, some how or the other, depend upon our own personal, soctal and cultural factors and environmental learnings,
Sex motive
Sex motive, although not so essential for an individual’s survival like food and water, constitutes a highly powerful pyscho-physical motive. Its satisfaction results in immense happiness and well being to an individudl and as a medium of survival to the species. Where the root of the sex motive is purely biological and innate in the nonhuman animals, it is not so simple to point out the roots in humans whose sex drive is governed by both the physiological and psychological factors. Therefore, the human sex motive is termed as a complex blend of innate as well as acquired tendencies.
In most animals, sex hormones are undeniably essential in stimulating the sex drive. These hormones, the testosterone in the males and estrogens in the females, are secreted by their testes and the Ovaries. The experiments connected with the removal of the testes and ovaries in the case of male and female animals or birds or injection of the doses of the male or female sex hormones haveclearly demonstrated the extent to which secretion ot sex hormones actually determines sexual behaviour among different species.
This dependency on hormones is seen far less as we move up the phyiogentic scale from lower animals and birds to monkeys ana chimpanzies. Finally, in sexually experienced adult humans, we see sull more treedom from hormonal controls. Castrated males and ovariectomized females sometimes experience little or no decline in sex drive or satisfaction. Females may also remain sexually active after the natural decline in ovarian function that ovcurs with age (in (in the form of menopause).
In addition to the dependency on hormones, females of most species, excluding humans are sexually receptive only at certain times —when they are on heat or, in more technical language, during the estrus cycle. During this period, the female ovaries secrete a greater quantity of estrogen into her blood stream and she becomes receptive to the advances of the males. This period coincides with the occurrence of ovulation in the females and consequently may result in pregnancy.
In human beings, although the pregnancy is possible only in the estrus periods, the sex drive is not dependent upon the occurrence of an estrus cycle. In general, human females and males can be Sexually motivated at any time quite independent of the period of fertility and hormones production. Much of their motivation in the form of sexual arousal and behaviour is rooted in earlier experiences and social learning and controlled by lesions in the hypothalamus, the subcortiCal structure tn the brain.
On account of the involvement of the cortical areas of the brain, the sources for the instigation of sex drive and sexual arousal vary very much in human beings. Sometimes it is the emotional feelings of the sex partner and at other times it may be a visual, auditory, a tactile sensation, a picture or a fantasy. In practice, the sex game is more psychological than biological or organic. For example, a smell of one’s favourite perfume or even a little moonlight works wonders in stimulating Sex drive in humans. The other variables related with one’s sucio-cultural environment, sexual experience and learning also play a leading role in guiding and deciding the mode and nature of sex drive and behaviour in human beings independent of their fertility period and secretion of hormones.
Maternal motive
The behaviour involving the care and protection of the offspring by the females of a species is called maternal behaviour and the motive that energizes a female to indulge in such behaviour is called the maternal drive or motive. The maternal drive is stimulated both by the biological and psychological factors inter-related with learning. The earlier scene in this direction is dominated by the role of the hormones. The hormone progesterone has been found to be important
in Maintaining pregnancy and estrogen helps to trigger birth. Another hormone, prolactine produced by the pituitary gland, directs the mammary glands to secrete milk for the new bom.
The later period of the maternal behaviour is controlled and guided by the learning components of the maternal drive. The stimuli responsible for stimulating the maternal drive and behaviour spring from a variety of sources: from one’s physical environment, or sociocultural background, trom mother and grandmother, from observing the behaviour of friends and neighbours, from books, from movies and television, etc. One’s own physical and mental health may also contribute in this direction. However, much depends upon the impact of the social learning and earlier experiences that leave an unforgettable impression on the mind of the mother justifying the finding
that being a gocd and loving mother depends considerably on having a good and loving mother.
Aggression motive
Aggression motive is related to those behaviours that are intended to inflict physical or psychological harm on others. Various views have been propounded about the origin and working of this motive. Those beheving in instinctive theory like Freud, Lorenz and Ardrey held that an aggressive motive is linked with an innate independent instinctual tendency in human beings which expresses itself in destructive and violent activities. However, this innate drive concept now stands rejected due to lack of substantial research.
From another viewpoint, aggression is caused aS a result of frustration. However, later researches have proved that it is not essential that reaction to frustration always leads to aggression. Bandura (1973) suggests that frustration generates aggression only in those people who have previously developed aggressive attitudes and actions as a means of coping with their environment. It leads us to a more accepted conclusion that aggression motive and aggressive behaviour are the product of earlier experiences and social learning. One may be aggressive because one has been brought up in the environment where he frequently observes his parents, elders, teachers and peers showing aggression towards him or others. A teacher, mother, or a friend who is rebuking or pushing some one in a fit of aggression, essentially provides a model of effective aggression to be imitated by the children. Imitation of aggression does not occur just with live models, violence or aggression shown on the television screen and described in the pages of the magazines and novels may provoke an individual toward aggression. This provoking, if reinforced, may lead him to adopt aggression as a mode of his dayto-day behaviour.
Affiliation motive
Affiliation motive directly springs from the affiliation, anced to be with other people. Why do we desire to be with other people? One
answer is the “herd instinct”, For most animals, the herd instinct jg genotically programmed. kt provides them a tendency to live together in packs, flocks or groups and as a result they get better care and protection for their welfare and survival. In human beings also the desire to be in groups may arise on account of the ‘‘herd instinct” ~the fear and anxiety of their welfare and survival. However, in their case, the arousal of affiliation motive is somewhat a complex phenomenon. Very often it is stimulated by some other needs or motives like social approval motive, recognition motive, power motive and achievement motive. As these needs or motives are connected with the socio-psychological make up of the individuals, the affiliation motive must be considered as an offspring of the early experiences and social learning.
What can lead an individual to an isolated life style or affiliated life style depends upon his experiences and interaction with his environment right from early childhood. For example, children who are raised with close family ties, show stronger affiliation motive than those coming from more loosely knit families. The neglected children or destitutes, on the other hand, may lack in the intensity of affiliation motive. In this way, the patterns of affiliated behaviour and strength of the affiliation motive may vary from individual to individual based on their earlier experiences and social learning.
Achievement motive
The need to achieve is the spring-board of the achievement motive. This desire to achieve is as basic and as natural as other biological or socio-psychological needs. However, in a competitive society or set up the desire for surpassing others or achieving more than others is intensified too much which in turn may give birth to a stronger drive or motive to achieve something or everything that is essential for beating others in the race and consequently feeling a sense of pride and pleasure in one’s achievement. The type of motivation produced by such motive for achievement has been named as achievement motivation.
Achievement motive as a term has been defined in various ways:
Atkinson and Feather: ‘‘The achievement motive is conceived as a latest disposition which is manifested in overt striving only when the individual perceives performance as instrumental to a sense 0 personal accomplishment”’ (1966, p. 13).
Irving Sarnoff: “Achievement motive is defined in terms of tho way an individual orients himself towards objects or conditions that ise does not possess. If he values those objects and conditions, and he feels that he ought to possess them he may be regarded as having a2 achievement motive. (Mangal 1983, 191).
Looking through these definitions we can say that achievement motive moves or drives an individual to get involved in the mastery of difficult and challenging performances for the pursuit of excellence .
It comes into the picture when an individual knows that his performance will be evaluated, that the consequence of his actions will be either a success or a failure and that good performance will produce a feeling of pride in accomplishment. Hence, achievement motive may be considered as a disposition to approach success or a Capacity for taking pride in accomplishment when success is achieved in one or other activity.
As far as the origin and development of the achievement motive is concerned, it can safely be said that it results from one’s early training as well as experiences and subsequent learning. In general, children usually learn the achievement motive from their parent’s life style and family life. Studies have shown that children who get independent training started at an early age and get more autonomy within a Cooperative, encouraging and less authoritarian family environment, usually develop as achievement-oriented children. Later on, the experiences and learning based on the circumstances and situauions in one’s life may lead an individual to provide a level for the intensity of his achievement motive to struggle for attaining the desired standard of excellence.
Theories of motivation
What motivates human behaviour is not a simple question to be answered. Psychologists have tried to explain the process and mechanism of motivation in a number of ways. Here we discuss some of the main viewpoints.
Behaviourist’s viewpoint (need and drive reduction theory)
Behaviourists like Watson, Clark Hull and Skinner emphasize that needs and drives work as stimuli to evoke responses in the form of motivation behaviour. Explaining the mechanism, they say that a need in the form of stimulation gives birth to a drive or motive which in turn sets the motivational behaviour in motion. The reduction of the need and the associate drive, then works as a reinforcer for maintaining behaviour. This need or drive reduction hypothesis propagated by the behaviourists has been strongly opposed by psychologists who came later. However, the importance of needs and drives in controlling and guiding the motivational behaviour of humans is beyond question.
Freud’s viewpoint (instinctive theory)
Freud’s theory of motivation was based on instincts. In his last book, Outline of psycho-analysis, he asserted that Eros (life or erotic instinct) and the death instinct (Desire to destroy even ta the extent of destroying one’s self) are the ultimate cause of the motivation in behaviour. In fact life instinct, the urge for self-preservation dominates the earlier scenes of one’s life. When life instinct stops, death instinct comes into operation. For example, the lover who has failed in bis love affair may think of committing suicide. However, what moves or energizes the activities of the life instinct is the need for sexual gratification—a media to provide intense pleasure, satisfaction and meaning to one’s life. Freud maintained that from birth onwards human beings experience sex gratification and sex motive, therefore, is the ultimate sole motive that works in energising the human behaviour.
Adler’s viewpoint (social urges theory)
Without agreeing with the extreme views of Freud regarding sex as the basis of human motivation, Alfred Adler, a student of Freud advocated that human beings are motivated primarily by social urges. For maintaining his social self one requires a margin of safety besides the simple security in terms of protection from danger. He achieves this margin of safety through domination and superiority. In order not to feel inferior or small. he strives or struggles for superiority. Therefore, the struggle for achievement and status or the will to dominate are really an outgrowth of the fundamental need for security. Thus, the motivation of human behaviour may be endorsed through a single basic drive known as security drive or motive or in terms of a single need, the need for security to maintain one’s social self.
Cognitive viewpoint (Goal-oriented Theory)
Unlike the mechanistic and instinctive approaches adopted by other psychologists, the cognitive school of psychology brings into the limelight the role of cognitive factors in producing human motivation. According to this view, human behaviour is purposeful with a certain end or goal in view. An individual who aspires to reach a goal, is helped by his cognitive abilities for the development of a desirable drive or motive (tendency to move towards that goal). The achievement of the goal satisfies the individual which in turn reinforces the maintained behaviour.
The cognitive view of motivation was first brought into focus by a philosopher-psychologist William James (1842-1910) who emphasized that the concept of motivation was necessary to bring the psychomotor gap” between ideas and actions. This view was further elaborated by psychologists like George Miller advocating the construction of plans for bridging the psychomotor gap to meet certain ends. Another cue for the involvement of cognitive factors in bringing motivation comes from the theory of cognitive dissonance advocated by the American psychologist Leon Festinger. Cognitive dissonance denotes an imbalance between what we believe (cognition) and what we do (conation). It may result in a psychological discomfort to us. As a solution, we are motivated to set the imbalance right either by changing our beliefs or our behaviour. For’ example, information linking smoking with cancer and heart diseases create dissonance in chain smokers. They cannot resist the temptation of smoking, yet they are warned that cigarette smoking is injurious to their health. There is an imbalance or dissonance, involving the beliefs (cognition) and smoking behaviour. The remedy lies in a goal directed behaviour that 1s aimed to reduce the dissonance either dy stopping the excessive smoking or by refusing to believe the information about its danger.
Maslow’s viewpoint (Self-actualization Theory)
In 1954 psychologist Abraham Maslow proposed that a motivational behaviour may satisfy many needs at the same time implying that an act is multi-motivated. Human needs, according to Maslow, arrange themselves in Aicrarchies of prepotency. In other words, the appearance of one need generally depends on the Satisfaction of another. They are closely related to each other and may be arranged from the lowest to the highest development of the personality. As shown in he proposed five sets of basic needs that can be arranged in a definite hierarchical order for understanding human motivation. At the bottom of the ladder are physiological needs, necessary for survival, and at the top are distinct psychological needs, Starting from the satisfaction of the physiological needs, every individual strives for the satisfaction of the other needs of higher order. This striving for one or the other level of needs causes the motivation of his behaviour. A need that has been satisfied is no longer a need. It ceases to be a motivating force and therefore, the satisfaction of one need leads an individual to try for the satisfaction of other needs. In this way the motivational behaviour of a person is always dominated not by his satisfactions but by his unsatisfied wants, desires or needs.
Self-actualization
Esteem needs
Belonging and love needs
Safety needs
Physiological needs
The motivational behaviour of most of us fits well in the hierar. chical structure of necds proposed by Maslow and consequently for them a necd of a higher order does not appear until a need of a lower order 18 gratified. They can think of the other needs Only when the food and other basic psychological needs are well gratified, A hungry person cannot think of casting his vote, doing social service or attainment of salvation through remembering God. Similarly, one who is insecure or unsafe may hardly be motivated for the gratitication of love or esteem needs.
But as it happens there is room for exception in Maslow’s hierarchy of needs to explain human motivation. The history of mankind may point out countless heroes, saints and other great people who have always stood for the ideals, religious or social values of life without caring for the satisfaction of biological or other lower needs.
It seems that the effects of gratification of a need are more stimulating and important than the effect of deprivation. The gratification of lower order needs motivates an individual to strive for the higher order needs. An individual, us Maslow emphasized, can actualize his potentialitics as a human being only after meeting the higher level needs like love and esteem. However. in the comphance of the hierarchical order there may arise exceptions. One may be more attracted or motivated to the satisfaction of one need at the cost of another and therefore a person can reach the top without caring for the satisfaction of lower order needs. But one thing is very clear that the need of self-actualization dominates and rules all the other lower level of needs. It seems to be the supreme aim of human life and thus works as a master motive for motivating the human behaviour. In the words of Maslow “A musician must make music, an artist must paint, a poct must write, if he is to be ultimately at peace with himself. What a man can be, he must be. He must be true to his own nature. This need we may call self-actualization’” (1954, p. 46). The fulfilment of self-actualization is thus a must for an individual as he will feel discontent and restless unless he does not strive for what he or she ts fitted for.
Measurement of motives
The methods employed for the measurement of motives may be classified as direct, indirect and experimental depending upon the nature of the adopted measures or techniques.
Direct methods
In this category we may include all those methods and techniques that permit the subject to express his motives through verbal or other overt behaviour. Here the required information about the motives of an individual is gathered directly from the primary source, the subject and his natural behaviour, by directly asking him to account for his own behaviour or through naturalistic objective observation
of his behaviour. The major techniques or methods included in this category may be named as questionnaire, inventories, motivation scale, check-list, naturalistic observation, interview, autobiography and other self descriptive measures.
Indirect methods
In situations where the subject is either unaware of his motives or is determined not to reveal his real motives, the use of indirect methods 1s recommended most. The material to which the subject is exposed in the indirect measures of motives consists of fairly ambiguous or unstructured stimulus situations. Based on the mechanism of projection, the subject is expected to provide clues for his hidden or true motives by responding to these unstructured stimuli. The interpretation of these clues by the experimenter may then help, in the assessment of the subject’s true motives.
All the projective techniques like Rorschach [nk blot test, Thematic Apperception Test (TAT) Child. Apperception Test (CAT), the Blacky pictures, Drawing completion test, Sentence completion technique, Word Association technique, Role playing and Soctodrama, etc., fall in the category of indirect methods of measuring motives.
These projective techniques provide full opportunity to the subject to project his motives and intentions in quite a structured form through responding in terms of writing some stories about the pictures shown or completing a sentence, sketching or drawmg, associating a word or playing a role. The interpretation of these structured responses depends upon the reason for giving the test. For example, if the experimenter is interested in measuring affiliation or achievement motive, the subject’s responses are evaluated in terms of how much affiliation orientation or achievement orientation it displays.
Experimental methods
Experimental methods of measuring motives consist of the measures involving objective observations under controlled condis tions. For ascertaining the real motives, here the experimenter first makes some tentative hypotheses and then tests them in the laboratory or laboratory-like conditions for arriving at some objective, reliable and valid conclusions. In addition to the investigation of the Origin and causing a behaviour involving motivation, experimental methods do also help in testing various empirical predictions based on particular motivational hypotheses. For example one may hypothesize that the persons having high achievement motive must differ in a number of predictable ways from persons with low achievement motive. In experimental testing of this hypothesis, the experimenter may collect scores related with achievement motive by introducing a projective test like TAT or Rorschach Ink blot and after that he may try to demonstrate that subjects who score high in terms of achievement motive are also faster at solving mathematical problem momorizing poems and performing some typical complex skill.
SUMMARY
Why we bchave and how we behave in a particular fashicn at qa particular moment can be understood in terms of motivation. It is one’s motivation which prompts, compels and energizes him to engage in a particular behaviour. The activating forces working in motivation mav be named as needs, drives or motives.
Needs are general wants or desires and are said to be the very basis of our behaviour. They can be broadly classified as biological and socio-psychological. Biological needs include all our bodily or organic needs like need for oxygen, food, water, rest, sleep and sex, etc. They are linked with the survival of the organism and species. Socio-psychological needs like need for love and affection, security, affiliation. self-assertion and self-actualization, etc., are linked with the socio-cultural environment and psychological make-up of an individual. Thev are considered very much essential as their deprivation may seriously affect the survival and welfare of an individual.
A need gives rise to a drive which activates an individual from within and directs its activities to a goal that may bring about the satisfaction of the need. Biological needs give birth to biological drives such as hunger, thirst and sex and the socio-psychological needs produce socio-psychological drives such as fear, anxiety. approval and achievement. Drives are also influenced and guided by incentives like praise. appreciation, rewards, bonus etc., in terms of working as reinforcing agents.
What we were used to understand by the word ‘drive’ has now been replaced by a more forceful term “motive”. It is defined as an onergetic force or tendency (learned or innate) working within the individual to compel, persuade or inspire him to act for the satisfaction of his basic needs or attainment of some specific purposes. Psychologists have identified and named a number of motives.
Hunger motive primarily arises on account of our body’s need for food and the first motive on account of the need for fluid. The need regarding food or fluid is conveyed to our brain which in turn Produces the motivation behaviour involving hunger or thirst. Apart from the biological function, hunger and thirst motives are very much controlled by personal experiences and social learning.
Sex motive although having a strong physiological base in the form of hormones functioning and estrus cycle is largely affected by the variables related with one’s experience and social learning.
Maternal motive (the urge to provide care and protection to offspring) is stimulated both by the biological factors and social
of achievement motive are also faster at solving mathematical problem momorizing poems and performing some typical complex skill.
SUMMARY
Why we bchave and how we behave in a particular fashicn at qa particular moment can be understood in terms of motivation. It is one’s motivation which prompts, compels and energizes him to engage in a particular behaviour. The activating forces working in motivation mav be named as needs, drives or motives.
Needs are general wants or desires and are said to be the very basis of our behaviour. They can be broadly classified as biological and socio-psychological. Biological needs include all our bodily or organic needs like need for oxygen, food, water, rest, sleep and sex, etc. They are linked with the survival of the organism and species. Socio-psychological needs like need for love and affection, security, affiliation. self-assertion and self-actualization, etc., are linked with the socio-cultural environment and psychological make-up of an individual. Thev are considered very much essential as their deprivation may seriously affect the survival and welfare of an individual.
A need gives rise to a drive which activates an individual from within and directs its activities to a goal that may bring about the satisfaction of the need. Biological needs give birth to biological drives such as hunger, thirst and sex and the socio-psychological needs produce socio-psychological drives such as fear, anxiety. approval and achievement. Drives are also influenced and guided by incentives like praise. appreciation, rewards, bonus etc., in terms of working as reinforcing agents.
What we were used to understand by the word ‘drive’ has now been replaced by a more forceful term “motive”. {tis defined as an onergetic force or tendency (learned or innate) working within the individual to compel, persuade or inspire him to act for the satisfaction of his basic needs or attainment of some specific purposes. Psychologists have identified and named a number of motives.
Hunger motive primarily arises on account of our body’s need for food and the first motive on account of the need for fluid. The need regarding food or fluid is conveyed to our brain which in turn Produces the motivation behaviour involving hunger or thirst. Apart from the biological function, hunger and thirst motives are very much controlled by personal experiences and social learning.
Sex motive although having a strong physiological base in the form of hormones functioning and estrus cycle is largely affected by the variables related with one’s experience and social learning.
Maternal motive (the urge to provide care and protection to offspring) is stimulated both by the biological factors and social
learning. The motives like aggression motive, affiliation motive and achievement motive are purely learned as they are linked with the demands of one’s environment in terms of social learning.
There are a number of viewpoints for explaining human motivation. Behaviourists put forward the need and drive reduction theory by emphasizing that need in the form of stimulation gives birth to a drive or motive which in turn produces motivation. Freud explained that the instincts (life and death instincts) are the ultimate cause of the motivation in humans. Adler remarked that human beings are motivated primarily by social urges and therefore, a human motivation can be explained only in terms of a single drive or motive named as security motive. Cognitive psychologists, with the help of their goal-oriented theory. highlighted the role of cognitive factors in producing human motivation. Psychologist Maslaw put forward a hierarchical structure of needs for explaining human motivation. The gratification of lower order needs motivates an individual to strive for the higher order needs. On the top of the hiererchi lies the need for self-actualization. In fact ii is the satisfaction of this master need that guides and controls the motivation behaviour of the humans.
Motives can be measured through direct, indirect and experimental methods. Dircct methods permit the subject to express his motives through verbal or other overt behaviour. indirect methods, involving projective techniques, are used in situations where the subject is either unaware or is determined not to reveal his real motives. Experimental methods consist of the measures involving objective observations under controlled conditions.
References and Suggested Readings
Arkes. H KR. and Garske, J.P., Psychological Theories of Motivation, Monterey Calif : Brooks‘Cole, 1977.
Atkinson, J W. and Feather, N.T. (Ed.); A Theory of Achievement Morivation, New York : John Wiley, 1966.
Bandura, A.. Aggression: A Social Learning Analysis, Englewood Cliffs, New Jersey : Prentice-Hall, 1973.
Brown, J.S., The Morivarion of Behaviour, New York : McGraw-Hill, 1961+ Caroll, H A.. Mental Hygiene—The Dynamics of Adjustment, Englewood Cliffs, New Jersey : Prentice-Hall, 1969.
Fisher. V.E., An Introductionto Abnormal Psychology cited by Labh Singh & G.P. Tiwariin Essentials of Abnormal Psychology, AGRA: Vined Pustak Mandir, 1971.
Hokason, J.E., The Physiological Bases of Motivation, New York: John Wiley, 1969.
Hunt, M., Sexual Behaviour in the 1970’s New York : Play Press, 1974.
Irving Sarnoff, Personality Dynamics and Development cited by Mangal S.K. in Educational! Psychology (IV ed.) Ludhiana : Prakash Brothers, 1983.
Kinsey, A.C. Sexual Behaviour in the Human Female Philadelphia : Saunders,
Kinsey,.A.C., Pomeroy, W.B. & Martin, C. E., Sexual Behaviour in Human Male,, Philadelphia: Saunders, 1948.
Maslow, A., Morivation and Personality, New York’ Harper & Row, 1954.
Mc Clelland, D.C., Atkinson, J.W., Clark R.A. & Lowell, E.C., The Achievement Motive, New York : Appleton, 1953.
Montagu, M.F A. (Ed.) Man and Aggression, New York: Oxford University Press, 1968.
Rosen, E. Fox, Ronald & Gregory, Ean, Abnormal Psychology (3rd ed.), Philadelphia : Saunders, 1972.
Schachter, S., The Psychology of Affiliation, ‘Stanford Calif: Standford Univertsury Press, 1959.
Stacey, C.L. and De Martino, M.E. (Ed.); Understanding Human Morivation (Rev. ed.) Cleveland: Howard Allen, 1963.
Valley, F.P., Motivation Theories and Issues, Monterey, Calif; Brooks/Cole, 1975.
Chapter 11
ATTENTION
Meaning
We make use of the term ‘attention’ frequently ir in our day-to-day conversation. While giving lectures in the class room, your teacher may call for your attention to listen to what he says or to look at the black-board. At a railway station or public bus station, you may hear the announcement (your attention please) meant fordrawing the attention of the passengers, telling them about the schedules of the trains or buses. In this way, in the ordinary sense, attention is taken as a power, Capacity or faculty of our mind, which can be turned on or off at will or something in kind or form that can be lent to this or that situation. However, this conception, as we will find after reading this chapter, is misconceived. Attention can never be considered as a force or some faculty of our mind. We must trv to understand it in terms of an act, a process or a function. Therefore, the use of this term as a noun is misleading. It may be better understood as a verb named as attending or a process involving the act of listening, looking at or concentrating on a topic, object or event for the attainment of desired ends. For providing & proper meaning to the term attention, let us take a look ata few definitions provided by eminent authorities on this subject.
Dumville: “Attention is the concentration of consciousness upon one object rather than upon another” (1938, p. 315).
Ross: ‘‘Attention is process of getting an object or thought clearly before the mind’”’ (1951, p. 170).
Morgan & Gilliland: “‘Attention is being keenly alive to some Specific factor in our environment. It is a preparatory adjustment for response’ (1942, p128).
Sharma, R.N.: ‘Attention can be defined as a process which compels the individual to select some particular stimulus according to his interest and attitude out of the multiplicity of stimuli present in the environment” (1967, p. 392).
All these definitions may bring the following facts into the limelight:
(i) Attention is essentially a process and not a product.
(ii) It helps in our awareness or consciousness of our environmeni.
(iii) This awareness or consciousness is selective.
(iv) At one time we can concentrate or focus our Consciousness on a particular object only.
(v) The concentration or focus provided by the process of attention helps us in the clarity of the perception of the perceived object or phenomenon.
(vi) In the chain of the stimulus-response behaviour it works as a good mediator. Properly attended stimulus yields better response. Therefore, for providing an appropriate response one has to pass through the stage of preparedness or alertness (mental as well as physical) set by the process of attention.
(vii) Attention is not merely a cognitive function but is essentially determined by emotional and conational factors of interest, attitude and striving.
The conclusion derived from the above, may thus lead us to think of attention as a process carried out through cognitive abilities and helped by emotional and conational factors to select something out of the various stimuli present in one’s environment and then bring it in the centre of one’s consciousness in ofder to perceive it clearly for deriving the desired ends.
Signs and effects of attention
How can we know that a particular individual is paying attention or not? In this concern much can be said through the observation of particular symptoms or reactions that are accompanied with the state of preparedness or alertness set by the process of attention. As one initiates into the state of attention, we may mark him turning his head, fixing his eyes or setting his ears toward the object of attention. Besides this the muscles and biological functioning of the body may be seen to be specifically prepared to the object of attention. One may adopt a specific posture or hold his breath and his expiration is less. In this way, from the observable symptoms in the form of postures, bodily conditions, facial expressions or contortions, we may say a lot about the attention or non-attention behaviour of an individual. However, for drawing more appropriate conclusions the experimenter must tryto avail of the report of introspection analysis (prepared by the subject himself). He should also try to test the validity and reliability of his conclusions by studying the effects of the efforts made by his subject by paying attention.
Some of these effects of attention may be mentioned as under:
(1) Attention helps in bringing mental alertness and preparedness. As aresult one becomes mentally alert and tries to exercise one’s mental powers as effectively as possible.
(2) Attention helps in providing proper deep concentration by focusing one’s consciousness upon one object at a time rather than two.
(3) It makes us better equipped for distinguishing or discriminating the object of attention from others.
(4) Attention acts asa reinforcement of sensory process and heips in the better organisution of the perceptual field for the maximum clarity and understanding of the obiect or phenomenon.
(5) Attention provides strength and ability to continue the task of cognitive functioning despite the obstacies put by the forces of distraction like noise and harsh weather conditions: .
(6) The attention paid to an object, event, process or phenomenon yields better results in the form of the amount and quality of learning, remembering, transfer of training. thinking, reasoning and problem-solving as well as displaying the inventive abiliues and creative functioning.
Types of Attention
Various authors have classified attention in a variety of ways but the following classification given by Ross (1951, p. 175) seems to be more agreeahle.
atention
1. Non-volitional
A enforces (sustained by instincts)
B spontaneous ( sustained by a sentiment)
2. Volitional
A. Implicit (obtained by a single act of the will)
B. Explicit ( obtained by repeated act of the will)
1. Non-Volitional or Involuntary Attention: This type of attention iS aroused without the play of will. Here we attend to an object or an idea without making any conscious efforts on our part. Mother’s attention towards her crying child, attention towards the members of the opposite sex. sudden loud noise, bright colours., ete.. are examples of non-Volitional attention.
Non-Volitional attention as classified above can be aroused by Our instincts as ulso by our sentiments. The attention which is aroused by the instincts is called enforced non-volitional attention. A young man, when we remark on his sex instinct or curiosity, becomes quite attentive in his tusk. The type of attention which he pays at this time can be called enforced Non-Volitional attention.
The other sub-type of Non-Volitional attention, aroused by the sentiments is called ‘‘Spontaneous Non-Volitional” attention. It is
the result of properly developed sentiments, We give somewhat automatic or spontancous attention towards that object, idea, person round which our sentiments are formed.
2. Volitional or Voluntary Attention. Attention is volitional or voluntary when it calls forth the exercise of will. It demands the conscious efforts on our part. It is least automatic and spontancous and not given wholeheartedly like volitional attention. Usually in such a type of attention, we have a clear-cut goal before us and for its accomplishment we, with all our efforts, make ourselves attentive. Attention paid at the time of solving an assigned problem of mathe~ matics, answering questions in an examination hall, consulting the railway time-table at the time of embarking on a railway journey are some of the examples of volitional attention.
Volitional attention is further sub-divided into two categories— Implicit volitional attention and Explicit volitional attention. Whereas in the former, a single act of volition is sufficient to bring about attention, in the latter we need repeated acts of will to sustain it. When a child is assigned some mathematical sums in tbe classroom, and he does not attend to them, he is warned by the teacher that he will be punished if he does not do his assigned practice work. This can make him exercise his will power, attend to the assigned task and finish it properly. Here a single act of will is responsible for the arousing of attention. Hence wecan take it as an example of implicit volitional attention.
In explicit volitional attention, attention is obtained by repeated acts of will. One has to struggle hard for keeping one self attentive. It requires a strong will power, keen attention and strong motives for the accomplishment of the task. The attention, paid during examination days for the required preparation against the heavy odds and distraction, is a glaring example of such attention.
Factors or deternurants of attention
External factors or conditions: External factors or conditions are generally those characteristics outside the situations or stimuli which make the strongest bid for capturing our attention. Let us try to examine these characteristics.
(i) Nature of the stimulus: All types of stimuli are not able to bring the same degree of attention. A picture attracts attention more readily than words. Among the pictures, the pictures of human beings invite more attention than those of animals or objects. Among the pictures of human beings those of beautiful women or handsome men attract more attention. In this sense coloured pictures are more forceful than colourless ones. In this way, an effective stimulus should always be chosen for capturing maximum attention.
(ii) Intensity and size of the stimulus: In comparison with the weak stimulus, the intense stimulus attracts more attention of an individual. Our attention becomes easily directed to a loud sound,
a bright light or a strong smell. Similarly a large object in environment is more likely to catch our attention than a small object. A large building will be more readily attended to than a small one.
(iii) Contrast, change and variety: Change and variety strike attention more easily than sameness and absence of change. If we are talking to our students the use of maps and charts suddenly attracts their attention. We do not notice the ticking on the wall but it arrests our attention as soon as it stops. Any change in the attention to which we have become adapted, immediately captures our attention. Actually the factor-contrast or change is highly responsible for capturing attention of the organism and contributes more than the intensity, size or nature of the stimulus. If all the LETTERS on this page were printed in capitals, the capitalized word in this sentence would have no greater attention getting value than any other word. It is the contrast or change which makes it more forceful.
Novelty also attracts attention. We are compelled to attend to anything that is novel. So it is always better to introduce the change or novelty for breaking monotony and securing attention.
(iv) Repetition of stimulus: Repetition is a factor of great importance in securing attention. We may ignore a stimulus at first instance but when it is repeated several times, it captures our attention. A mis-spelled word is more likely to be noticed if it occurs twice in the same paragraph than if it occurs only once. In the class room also the particular point on which the teacher tries to draw the attention of the students is raised again and again. While giving the lecture, the important aspects of the speech are often repeated, so that the attention of the audience can be easily directed to the valuable points. But this practice of repetition should be caretully used. Too much repetition of stimulus may bring diminishing returns.
(v) Movement of the Stimulus: A moving stimulus catches our attention more quickly than a stimulus that does not move. In other words, we are more sensitive to objects that move in our field of vision. Most of the advertisers make use of this fact and try to capture the attention of people through moving electric lights.
Internal factors or conditions
How much and in what way a person will attend to a stimulus depends not only upon the characteristics of that stimulus or the favourable environmental conditions but also upon his interest, motives, basic needs and urges. Every person likes to do or to attend to those objects or activities that fulfils one’s own desires to motives and suits his own nature, interest and aptitude. Let us try or see that part played by these inner factors in securing attention of a person.
(i) Interest and attention: Interest is a very helpful fact im securing attention. We attend to obyects m which we are mterested aod we do not attend those ia which we have no mterest. [f we go to the market to buy a book, our attention will be captured more by book shops than by cloth and shoe shops A_ boy interested in hockey will be more attentive in watching a hockey match than the football or the volleyball matches played .at the same time on the adjacent grounds. A wise teacher ts able to secure the attention of bis students ff he tres to make his lesson interesting by connecting it with their basic needs, drives and interests.
(ii) Motives: The basic drives and urges of the individual are very important in securing bis attention. Phirst. hunger, sex. curiosity, fears are some of the important motives that exercise delinite influence upon attention. A hungry pergon 1s sure to notice the smell of cooking food. Tho maa who fears asnake will definitely attend to all things resembling the snake. Sex drive occupies a unique place among the different drives. Even the most inattentive student in the class can be made to sit on the edge of his chair if the teacher announces that he is going to talk about the sex practices of American Hippies. Nowadays ta the world of advertisement sex is the drive that has been extremely exploited. We can see the shapely girls in bathing suits to sell such unrelated items as tyres. nut bolts and tractors.
(iii) Mental set: Besides our interests and motives the mental set is an important factor of securing attention. Mental set means the tendency or bent of the whole mind. A person always attends to those objects towards which his mind has been set. A person waiting for the letter of bis beloved can recognize her envelope among a buge lot of the envelopes. Similarly, on the day of examination the slightest thing concerning the examination easily attracts the attention of the students. All this happens because persons concerned possess a definite bent of mind and consequently their attention is immediately directed towards the related objects.
Span of attention
While defining attention, we have emphasized that in a strict psychological sense only one object, idea, or fact can be the centre of consciousness at one particular moment and consequently we can attend to only one thing ata time. However, it is found with some people that they can attend to more than One or even many tasks at the same time. While writing a letter they are scen attending the telephone, watching time from the wall clock and responding with smiles to*the approach of somebody else. In other cases, immediately after entering the room or hall the individuals are found to give a detailed account of their perception in terms of the number of chairs and fans, persons present, the pictures hanged, the colour of the walls or curtains, etc. In this way, people may possess the ability to grasp a number of objects or in other words to attend toa number of stimuli in one short presentation. This ability of an individual is evaluated in terms of the span of his attention which differs from person to person and even situation to situation in the same person. Therefore, the term span of attention may be defined in terms of the quality, size or extent to which the perceptual field of an individual can be effectively organised tn order to enable him to attend toa number of things in a given spell of short duration.
Historically speaking, it was Sir William Hamilton who. in the year 1859, first of all tried to perform experiments on the span of attention. For his experiments he spread out marbles on the ground before his students and concluded that on an average the span of visual attention is limited to 6-7 marbles i.e., we are unable to see more than 6-7 marbles at a time. However, if these marble pieces are arranged in groups or units, we can attend to a greater number of the marbles. Further experiments were performed by psychologists like Jevons (1871), Glanville and Dallen Back (1929), Woodworth and Shalsberg (1968), etc.
Experiments to study the span of visual attention are carried out with the help of an instrument known as Tachistroscope. Ordinarily in our college laboratories we use a Falling door type Tachistroscope. It consists of a wooden screen having a window or hole in the middle. Digits, letters or small patterns written or printed on cards may be inserted in the apparatus for being seen through the hole or window. Its exposure is quite short (generally 1/10th second) which is regulated by a movable falling shutter. The subject is shown the cards through the hole for the fixed exposure time. He may then be asked to record as to what he perceived and the number of digits, letters, etc., correctly reproduced, may , then, be considered as the measure of one’s span of visual attention.
For the measurement of the other, sensory span of attention, different techniques may be employed. For example, the span of auditory attention may be measured by tapping a number of times: and asking the subject how many taps he has heard.
Shifting or fluctuation of attention
While paying attention towards an object, event or phenomenon, it is not possible for us to hold it continuously with the same intensity for a longer duration. In course of time when the centre of our consciousness either shifts from one stimulus to another or from one part of the same stimulus to another part, this is called the shiftmg of our attention. Sometimes the centre of our consciousness keeps on fluctuating from one stimulus to another or on the different parts of a stimulus, this is known as fluctuation of attention. Fluctuation of attention also involves rapid change in the intensity of the attention. The intensity increases or decreases ranging between the paying of attention and no attention or, at least of less attention.
The reason for the shifting and fluctuation of our attention lies tn thé division of the field of perception or consciousness at a particular moment. Consciousness at a particular moment may be divided into two parts, central and marginal. At the time when our attention ig on the wall clock and consciousness is focused on it, the other objects and activities going on inside the room remain within the reach of marginal consciousness. This helps us in becoming partly conscious or aware of them. Both these fields of perception or consciousness are interchangeable. The object at a moment, go under the marginal consciousness or even beyond that. Consequently the subject of attention generally goes on changing making the process of attention as quite flexible and dynamic.
Historically, the phenomenon of fluctuation of attention was experimentally recorded the first time by a psychologist named Urbantschitsch (1875). While testing the auditory sensation he observed that the subject was not able to hear the tick continuously of an alarm clock kept at a distance. At times, he was able to hear the tick of this clock, but at other times the tick disappeared from his attention.
The study of fiuctuation of visual attention can’ be experimentally made in the psychological laboratory with the help of a device called Masson’s Disc. This disc consists of a circular card-board having four or five patches of ink put in a line along one radius .
‘When the disc is rotated on an electric or mechanically run wheel, each dot appears as a Circle to the subject. The subject is asked to concentrate on any one of the blackish circles on the rotating disc and to report when the circle is clearly seen and when it becomes less clear or blurred. The subject is told to raise his finger when it is clear and put it down when it becomes blurred till it becomes clear again and he raises his finger again.
Division of attention
While reading a book, the attention is centred around the topic or the material in hand. In case there is a favourite piece of music coming from the nearby radio set then there may arise a number of situations. In one case, the individual may attend to the music and consequently the reading is given up. In the second case, he may deliberately attempt to ignore the music and thus may be able to concentrate on reading. In the third case, there may be all confusion and mess where he can neither attend to his study nor be able to enjoy the music. In the fourth case, he may be found quite capable of paying attention simultaneously to both the stimuli, reading as well as music. It is the Jast situation where the problem of the division of attention arises. In this case, attention is divided between two tasks. If more than two tasks ure attended and performed simultaneously then the attention will have to be divided among these tasks.
Many researchers have tried to study the effect of the division of attention on the work product. It has been found that the work products suffer less if both the tasks are simple and similar but in the case of difficult and dissimilar tasks, the division Of attention proves disadvantageous. No matter the amount, the division of attention surely results in deterioration of both quality and quantity of nearly all the tasks attended and performed simultaneously by an individual. It is very rarely that division of attention produces no effect. It has happened only in exceptional cases of individuals like the famous figure of the late Hardayal and mathematics wizard Shakuntalaji or in case when except for one, the remaining tasks can be performed automatically requiring the least or no attention.
Sustained attention
It one desires to be successful in the operation of a task, he has to begin with paying attention or concentrating his energies an the operation of that task. But it is the beginning of a process and not the end. After paying initial attention, care is to be taken to hold it for a long enough duration. The individual should be absolutely absorbed in handling that task, unmindful of anything else going on. without getting disturbed in the least. This needed activity is named sustaining of attention. In the words of Woodworth (1945, p. 48), To sustain attention is to Concentrate one’s activity continuously upon some object or happening or problem,”’ Thus, in the case of sustained attention, there is no wandering. The individual attention always remains on track and the activity proceeds systematically without any serious distraction. The most striking examples of such sustained attention may be seen through the activities of a hunter who is settling for the opportune moment to strike or an astronomer sitting with his eyes fixed on a particular star while looking through his telescope or a mathematician busy in solving a problem for a long time.
Truly speaking, if one needs to achieve the required objectives within a reasonable time, he must try to pick up the habit of paying sustained attention. One must be used to concentrate on the activity one is doing. A student who cannot keep his attention fixed for a reasonable period is sure to lag behind in his studies. An artist has to strive for sustained attention so that he can finish his desired piece of art. A writer, a poet, a musician all have to care for sustained attention.
In holding the attention for long there is need for creating genuine interest of the subject in the task which he is doing. All the internal as well as external factors of getting attention (emphasized earlier in this article) can prove quite helpful in sustaining of attention. Therefore, every care is to be taken for making the best use of them. Moreover, the factors which create distraction and put obstacles in the path of holding the attention long. should be removed. For obtaining better results, the individual whose attention we wish to be sustained, should be made to work under most favourable environmental conditions and anything which may cause him disturbance mentally and emotionally should be minimised. Moreover, the will power of the person should be adequately developed and he should be made to struggle hard for acquiring the set objectives and higher ideals in his life.
Distraction
When we are attending to an object or activity, there are things in the external environment as well as inside ourselves that try to turn our attention away from that object or activity. These things are called distractors which interfere with our attention. Distraction, as a psychological term, has been defined by H.R. Bhatia in the following way:
“Distraction may be denied as any stimulus whose presence interferes with the process of attention or draws away attention from the object which we wish to attend. (1968, p. 139).
The sources of distraction can be roughly civided into two partsexternal and internal factors. Among the external or environmental factors the more common and prominent are noise, music, improper lighting, uncomfortable seats, unfavourable temperature, inadequate ventilation, defective methods of teaching, improper use of teaching aids, defective voice of the teacher and his improper behaviour etc. These sources of distraction vary very much. They affect the individual according to his own mental set and personality characteristics. The conditions which cause distraction to an individual may prove helpful in sustaining attention to others.
Therefore, the common notion that the external unusual environmental Conditions always hinder the progress of the work is misleading. People are found working better in a noisy environment. Many of us Can Concentrate better on studies while the radio is playing. Actually speaking, the source of distraction lies more commonly in the individual himself than in outside environmental conditions. Internal distractions such as emotional disturbances, ill-health, boredom, lack of motivation, feelings of fatigue or interesting thoughts unrelated to the matter in hand have more effect than the everyday external distractors. If one is keeping normal health and does not suffer from unusual mental worries and emotional disturbances, then no power on earth can distract his attention in case he has determined with a strong will ta proceed on his course, Most of us are in the habit of offering Jame excuses in the name of outside distraction, for our unwillingness and lack of determination.
But from this discussion, it should not be taken for granted that external factors of distraction have little significance and should not be cared for at all. In the midst of external distraction, the individual has to struggle hard ta overcome it. He puts in greater energy to keep the object before his mind. Surely and certainly, there should not be such misutilization of energy which otherwise can be saved for achieving higher aims. Therefore. great care should be taken to get away trom all possible environmental causes of distraction. The working situations and environmental conditions should be so modified and adjusted as to provide adequate working facilities and a healthy congenial atmosphere for an individual whose attention in the work we wish to capture and sustain.
SUMMARY
Attention is closely related to the processes and products of learning. [t refers to some deliberate and conscious efforts on the part of an individual to select something out of the various stimuli present in his environment and bring it in the centre of his consciousness in order to perceive it clearly for achieving the desired ends.
Attention denote: a state of physical as well as mental preparedness and alertness on the part of an individual as may be adjudged through keen observation of his body postures and positions, physioJogical changes and studying yields of the attended Jearning or problem solviag activities.
Normally, we can attend to only one thing at a time. However, there are people who can attend to more than one or even many tasks at the same time. Thev are said to possess a larger span of attention (i.e. ability to organise a larger perceptual field in a given spell or short duration). Experimentally the span of attention can be studied with the help of an instrument named Tachistroscope.
Attention cannot be held continuously with the same intensity for a longer duration. In course of time when the centre of consciousness shifts or fluctuates from one object to another or from one part of the object to another part, it is termed as shifting or fluctuation of attention. This study of fluctuation of visual attention can be experimentally made with the help of a device called Masson’s Disc.
The phenomenon of division of attention is concerned with the task of paying attention simultaneously to a number of stimuli in one’s environment. The division of attention adversely affects the products of attention. However, it may be seen that work products suffer less if the tasks attended to are simple and similar in com: parison with the difficult and dissimilar ones.
Attention may be broadly classified as Volitional or Voluntary (maintained by one’s will power) and non-Volitional or involuntary (without the play of will). Volitional attention is of two types: Implicit and explicit. While in implicit, a single act of volition is sufficient to bring about attention, in explicit we need repeated acts of will to sustain it. Non-Volitional attention also comes under two categories: Enforced non-volitional aroused by the instincts and spontaneous non-volitional aroused by sentiments.
Attention is guided and controlled by the external as well as internal factors. External factors lying in one’s environment may be named as : nature of the stimulus, intensity and size of the stimulus, contrast, change and variety, repetition of stimulus, movement of the stimulus, etc. Internal factors represent the factors lying within the person himself like his interest, motives and mental set.
For better results in learning one has to hold his attention for a desir ble long duration without getting disturbed in the least. This needed activity is named sustaining of attention. One has to make serious and deliberate efforts for sustaining one’s attention by taking care of all the factors responsible for maintaining attention and eliminating or reducing the forces of distraction.
Distraction represents a sort of interference with our attention. The source of distraction may be external (e.g. noise, improper lighting, uncomfortable seats, etc.) and internal (e.g. lack of motivation, emotional disturbances, ill-health, boredom or fatigue, etc.). For deriving useful ends, one should try to overcome all such forces of distraction.
References and Suggested Readings
Bhatia, H.R., Elements of Educational Psychology (3rd ed. reprint), Calcutta: Orient-Longman, 1968.
Broadbent, D.E., Perception and Communication, Oxford: Pergamon Press, 1958. Collins, Mary and Drever, James, Experimental Psycholeyy (3rd ed.), London: Methuen, 1930.
Dumville, B., The Fundamentals of Psychology (3rd ed.) Iondon: University Tutoria} Press, 1938.
James, W., Principles of Psychology (Vol. 11) New York: Holt 1890
Morgan, J.B. and Gilliland, A.R., An Introduction to Psychology, New York: Macmillan, 1942.
Ross, J.S., Ground Work of Educational Psychology, London: George G Harrup & Co, 1951.
Sharma, R.N., Educational Psychology, Meerut: Rastogi Publication, 1967.
Shanker, Udai, Advanced Educational Psychology, New Delhi: Oxonian Press 984. ,
White, Alan, R., Attention, Oxford: Blackwell, 1964. Wocdworth, R.S., Psychology, London, Methuen, 1945, Woodworth, R.S. (Ed.); Experimental Psychology, New York: Holt, 1954.
Chapter 12
LEARNING
Meaning and Nature
Learning occupies a very important place in our life. Most of what we do or do not do is influenced by what we learn and how we have learnt it. Learning, therefore. provides a key or structure to one’s personality and behaviour An individual starts learning immediately after his hirth or in a strict sense even earlier when in the womb of the mother. Experience—direct or indirect—is found to play a dominant role in moulding and shaping the behaviour of the individual from the very beginning. While approaching a burning match stick the child gets burnt and he withdraws. The next time. when he faces a burning match stick, he wastes no time in withdrawing himself away. He learns to avoid not only the burning match stick but also all burning things. When this happens we say that the child has learned that if one touches a flame, one gets burnt. In the same way from some other experiences. ne may reach conclusions like “The green apples are sour’, ‘Barking dogs seldom bite”. ‘‘A bird in hand is better than two in the bush’, “Be very cautious in believing strangers’. etc. All these conclusions derived from the experiences—direct or indirecit—bring a change in one’s behaviour of the individual. These changes in one’s behaviour brought: about by experience are commonly known as learning. In this way, the term learning broadly speaking stands for all those changes and modifications in the behaviour of the individual which he undergoes from his birth till death.
This is what we understand fromthe term learning. However, this term has not been interpreted always in the same way by the different thinkers and psvchologists as may be revealed through some of the following definitions:
Gardner Murphy: “The term learning covers every modification in behaviour to meet environmental requirements”’ (1968, p. 205).
Henry P. Smith: ‘Learning is the acquisition of new behaviour or the strengthening or weakening of old behaviour as tho result of experience”’. (1962, p. 260).
Woodworth: “‘Any activity can be called learning so far as it develops the individual—(in any respect, good or bad) and makes him alter behaviour and experiences different from what that would otherwise have been’’. (1945, p. 288).
Kingsley and Garry: “‘Learning is the process by which behaviour (in the broader sense) is originated or changes through practice or training’. (1957, p. 12).
Pressey, Robinson and Horrocks. “Learning is an episode in which a motivated individual attempts to adapt his behaviour so as to succeed in a situation which he perceives as requiring action to attain a goal’’. (1967, p. 232).
Crow and Crow: ‘‘Learning is the acquisition of habits, knowledge and attitudes. It involves new ways of doing things, and it operates on an individual’s attempts to overcome obstacles or to adjust to new situations. It represents progressive changes in behaviour… It enables him to satisfy interests to attain a goal’. (1973, p. 225).
Hilgard: ‘‘Learning is the process by which an activity originates. or is changed through reacting to an encountered situation, provided that the characteristics of the changes in activity cannot be explained on the basis of native response, tendencies, maturation, or temporary states of the organism (e.g. fatigue or drugs, etc.)’’. (1958, p. 3).
The above definitions reveal the following facts about the meaning and nature of learning.
—Learning is a process and not the product.
— It involves all those experiences and trainings of an individual (right from his birth) which helps him to produce change in his hehaviour.
—Learning leads to bring changes in the behaviour but it does not necessarily mean that these changes always bring improvement or development in the positive direction. One has equal chances to be drifted to the debit side of the human personality.
—Learning prepares an individual for the necessary adjustment and adaptation.
—All learning is purposeful and goal-oriented. In case there is no purpose, there would definitely be hardly any learning.
—The scope of learning is too wide to explain in words. It is a very comprehensive process which covers nearly all the domains—conative, cognitive and affective of human behaviour.
— Learning is universal and continuous. Every creature that lives learns. In human beings it is not limited to any age, sex, race or culture. It is a continuous never ending process that goes from womb to tomb.
—Learning does not include the changes in behaviour on account of maturation, fatigue, illness or drugs, etc.
Let us throw more light on the last characteristics mentioned above. It reveals that changes in one behaviour are not always
brought and controlled by learning only. There are other factors like fatigue, drugs, illness and maturation etc., which produce bebavioural changes. The question arises can we attribute all such changes in our behaviour to learning? The answer is no. The reasons may be explained as under:
1. The changes produced in behaviour by maturation are definitely linked with the unfolding and ripening of inherited traits (i.e., the process of natural growth). They are quite independent of activity, practice or experience. In the words of Biggie and Hunt (1968), ‘‘Maturation is a developmental process within which a person, from time to time, manifests different traits, the ‘blue prints’ of which have been carried in his cells from the time of his conception’’. The resultant behaviour, thus, on account of the process of maturation does not fall in the category of acquired or learned behaviour.
2. The behavioural changes brought about by factors like fatigue, drugs, illness and emotional factors, etc., are purely transitory in nature. These changes, like physical changes in the material objects, are quite unstable. As and when, the factor causing the change is removed or restored, the behaviour may be traced back to its original position.
Thus in comparison with all other factors that lead to changes in the human behaviour, the changes brought by learning (experience and training, etc.) are relatively more enduring and stable.
It must be noted carefully that here we have deliberately used the word “relatively enduring and stable changes” in place of ‘‘absolutely permanent changes” in the behaviour of the learner. It is true that learning brings changes in the behaviour but these changes are not absolutely permanent, as the changes brought about by chemical reactions in the material objects. The habits we pick up, the interest we develop, the skills we acquire, the knowledge we gain as a result of learning at one or the other occasion can be unlearned, modified or replaced by some other set of similar or differently acquired behaviour. Therefore, it is safe to use the word relatively permanent in place of absolutely permanent for the resultant changes in one’s behaviour on account of Jearning and consequently a proper definition of learning may run as below:
Learning is a process which brings Relatively Permanent Changes in the Behaviour of a Learner through Experience or Practice
Types of learning
Learning, defined as a process of bringing relatively permanent changes in the behaviour of an organism, may be classified in 4 number of categories depending upon the domain or specific area 0 the behaviour in which changes are introduced or in terms of the methods or techniques that are employed for the introduction of pebavioural changes.
If we follow the former criterion, the learning can be classified ag yorbal learning (involving verbal expression), learning of motor skills (such as walking, dancing, typing, swimming, etc), affective learning (learning of habits, interest attitudes, appreciation, etc.) and cognitive learning (learning of concepts, principles, problem-solving, etc).
In the case of the latter criterion, we may categorize learning as trial and error Jearning, classical conditioning, operant conditioning, chain learning, shaping, learning through generalization, learning through discrimination, serial learning, associate learning, insightful learning, etc.
An alternative basis adopted by Gagne (1970) for the purpose of classifying learning is worth mentioning. By taking into consideration, a specific hierarchical order he has classified learning into eight types, namely, signal learning (classical conditioning), S.R. learning (instrumental and operant conditioning), chain learning, verbal associate learning, multiple discrimination, learning of concepts, multiple discrimination, learning of principles and problem-solving.
Many of these various types of learning are discussed somewhere in this text at the proper place. However a few are discussed below:
Verbal learning: Learning of this type helps in the acquisition of verbal behaviour. The language we speak, the communication devices we use, are the result of such learning. Rote learning and rote memorization which is a type of school learning is also included in verbal learning. Signs, pictures, symbols, words, figures. sounds and voices, etc., are employed by the individual as an essential instrument for engaging him in the process of verbal learning.
Motor learning: The learning of all types of motor skills may be included in such type of learning. Learning how to swim, riding a horse, driving a car, flying a plane, playing the piano, hitting a moving target, drawing a geometrical design, adding and multiplying long digits. performing experiments and handling various instruments are the examples of such learning. Acquisition of various skills through such learning helps in acquiring speed and accuracy In the field of operation of these skills and creates a sort of confidence In him to perform the task with great ease and satisfaction. The art of these skills can be acquired through a systematic and planned way of the acquisition and fixation of a series of organised actions Or responses by making use of some appropriate learning methods and devices.
Concept learning: A concept in the form of a mental image denotes a generalized idea about the things, persons or events. For example, our concept of ‘‘tree’”’ is a mental image that brings to us the similarities or common properties of all the different trees we know, We will call a thing tree when it has some specific characteristics, the image of which we have already acquired in our mind on account of our previous experience, perception or rich imagination. The formation of such concepts on account of previous experience, training or cognitive processes is called concept learning. Such type of concept learning proves very useful in recognizing, naming and identifying the things. All of our behaviour, verbal, symbolic, motor as well as cognitive, is influenced by our concepts. Thus what we do, say, understand, reason and judge is, to a great extent, controlled by the quality of our concept learning.
Problem Solving: In the ladder of learning and acquisition of behaviour, problem-solving denotes a higher type of learning. Such type of learning requires the use of the cognitive abilities like reasoning, thinking, power of observation, discrimination, generalization, imagination, ability to infer and draw conclusions, trying out novel ways and experimenting, etc. Based on the grounds of earlier experiences, effect of coaching, training, formal or informal learning and acquisition of knowledge. habits, attitudes, interests and learning sets, etc.,an individual may be motivated to reach an unknown target or unfolding the mystery of an unresolved problem. How he can be trained to accomplish such a task is the function of problemsolving. This type of learning has essentially caused human beings to contribute significantly to the progress and improvement of society.
In the process of acquiring the above and other types of learning, one has to adopt an adequate technique in the form of some methods or processes. In some cases connections or associations in the form of stimulus-response mechanism, instrumental or conditioning may help while in others organisation of the perceptual field and the use of cognitive abilities may work. The use of special techniques like serial learning, associate learning, etc., developed by the psychologists may also help in this direction. Let us see what we mean by them.
Serial learning
Serial learning consists of such learning in which the learner is presented with such type of learning material that exhibits some sequential or serial order. Children often encounter such a learning Situation in schools where they are expected to master lists material such as the alphabet, multiplication tables, the names of all the states in their country, the names of presidents or prime ministers in order, etc. The experimental studies performed in the field of serial Jearning tell us that out of the serial learning material, the items presented at the beginning and the end of the list are easier to remember than those in the middle, and this appears true whether the items are nonsense syllables, actual words or longer passages such as poems.
Paired-associate learning
In this learning, learning tasks are presented in such a way that they may be learned on account of their associations. The name of a village like Kishanpur is remembered on account of its association with the name of Lord Krishna or a girl’s name Ganga by learning it in the form of making paired association with the river Ganges. Much of the verbal or motor learning may, thus, be learnt or remembered on account of the technique of paired or multiple association.
In having practice of such paired-associate learning the learner may be presented a series of paired words or nonsense syllables hke the following:
Paired words
Paired nonsense syllables
Dog – animals
PN – PF
Parrot – Bird
NLL – JDS
Motor – child
TIKL – LPSC
The learner views the pair (two words or syllables) for a brief spell, usually less than five seconds. He is then presented with one member of the pair and asked to recall the other. The practice with such procedure then helps in building what is known as associate learning. An example of paired associate learning is the acquisition of foreign language vocabulary items that are paired with their mother-tongue equivalents. The matching items presented in the objective type questions of the achievement test also Jay emphasis on such type of learning.
Theories of learning
What goes in the process of learning? How does an individual learn a set of knowledge, skills, habits, interests, attitudes and similar other things in his life? Such questions have always been a subject of enquiry and investigation before psychologists and as a resulta number of theories have come into being. In a broad sense these theories may be classified into two major heads: Behaviouristic theories and cognitive theories.
Behaviouristic theories belong to the school of behaviourism. They interpret learning in terms of association between stimulus and response. Under this category we may include theories like Thorndike’s theory of trial and error learning, Guthrie’s contiguity theory of learning, Halt’s drive reduction theory of learning, classical and Operant conditioning.
Cognitive theories, on the other hand, belong to the school of Gestult psychology and cognitive psychology. In place of pure mechanical or instrumental approach these theories emphasize tho role of purpose, insight, understanding and other cognitive factors
in the process of learning. Under this category, the theories like, theory of insightful learning, Lewin’s field theory of learning, Tolman’s sign learning, etc., may be included.
As far as this text is concerned, we would like to discuss a few important theories like Thorndike’s theory of trial and error, classical conditioning, operant conditioning and insightful Jearning.
Trial and Error Theory of Learning: The famous psychologist Edward L. Thorndike (1874-1949) is known as the propagator of the theory of trial and error learning. It is the result of his experiments performed on chickens, rats and cats. For illustration, let us narrate one of his experiments. He put a hungry cat in a puzzle box. There was only one door for exit which could be opened by correctly manipulating a latch. A fish was placed outside the box. The smell of the fish worked as a strong motive for the hungry cat to come out of the box. Consequently, the cat made every possible effort to come out. The situation is described by Thorndike himself as—‘‘It tries to squeeze through every opening; it claws and bites at the bars or wires, it thrusts its paws through any opening and claws at everything it reaches’’. In this way, it made a number of random movements. In one of the random movements, by chance, the latch was manipulated. The cat came out and got its reward.
For another trial, the process was repeated. The cat was kept hungry and placed in the same puzzle box. The fish and its smell again worked as motive for getting out of the box; it again made random movements and frantic efforts. But this time, it took less time in coming out. On subsequent trials such incorrect responses, biting, clawing and dashing were gradually diminished and the cat took less time on every succeeding trial. In due course, it was in a position to manipulate the latch as soon as it was put in the box. In this way, gradually, the cat learned the art of opening the door.
The experiment sums up the following stages in the process of learning:
1. Drive: (in the present experiment it was hunger which was intensified with the sight of the food).
2. Goal: To get the food by getting out of the box.
3. Block: The cat was confined in the box with a closed door.
4. Random movements: The cat, persistently, tried to get out of the box.
5. Chance Success: As a result of this striving and random movement the cat, by chance, succeeded in opening the door.
6. Selection (of proper movement): Gradually, the cat recognised the correct manipulation of the latch. It selected the proper way of manipulating the latch out of its random movements.
7. Fixation: At last, the cat learned the proper way of opening the door by eliminating all the incorrect responses and fixing only the right responses. Now it was able to open the door without any error or, in other words, learned the way of opening the door. :
Thorndike named the learning of his experimental cat as ‘Trial and Error Learning’. He maintained that the learning is nothing but the stamping in of the correct responses and stamping out of the incorrect responses through trial and error. In trying for the correct solution the cat made so many vain attempts. It committed error after error before gaining success. On subsequent trials, it tried to avoid the erroneous ways and repeat the correct way of manipulating the latch. Thorndike called it “‘Learning by selecting and connecting”’ as it provides an opportunity for the selection of the proper responses and correct or associate them with adequate stimuli. In this reference, Thorndike has written —‘Learning is connecting. The mind is man’s connection system.” (1931, p. 122).
As result learning is caused by the formation of connection in the nervous system between stimuli and responses. There is a definite association between sense impression and impulses to action. This association is known as a bond or connection. Since it is these bonds or connections which are strengthened or weakened in the making and breaking of habits. Thorndike’s system, is sometimes, called a ‘bond psychology” or simply ‘‘connectionism’”’.
Thorndike propounded the following laws of learning on the basis of his theory:
1. The law of readiness : The statement rons as under:
“When any conduction unit is ready to conduct, for it to do so is satisfying. When any conduction unit is not in readiness to conduct, for it to conduct is annoying. When any conduc tion unit is in readiness to conduct. for it not to do so is annoying.”
This law is indicative of learner’s state to participate in the learning process. Readiness according to Thorndike is preparation for action. It is very essential for learning. If the child is ready to Jearn, be learns more quickly, effectively and with greater satisfaction than if he is unwilling to learn. It warns us not to make the child learn ull he is ready to learn and also not to miss any opportunity of providing learning experiences if the child is, already, prepared to learn. The right movements concerning the learning situation and the learner’s state of mind should be very well recognized and maximum use of this knowledge should be made by the teacher. He should also make an attempt to motivate the students by arousing their attention, interest and curiosity.
2. The Law of Effect: In the words of Thorndike, the statement of the law runs as under:
“When a modifiable connection between situation and response is made and is accompanied or followed by a satisfying state of affairs, that connection’s strength is increased. When made and accompanied or followed by an annoying state of affairs, its strength is decreased”’.
In simple words, it means that the learning takes place property when it results in satisfaction and the learner derives pleasure out of it. In a situation where the child meets with failure or gets no satisfaction, the progress on the path of learning is blocked. All the pleasant experiences have a lasting influence and are remembered for a long time, while the unpleasant ones are soon forgotton. Therefore, the satisfaction and dissatisfaction, pleasure or displeasure obtained as a result of some learning ensure the degree of effectiveness of that learning.
In other words, this law emphasizes the role of rewards and punishment in the process of learning. Being rewarded as a result of some learning motivates and encourages the child to proceed on the same path with more intensity and enthusiasm while the punishment of any sort discourages him and creates distaste and disgust towards that learning.
3. The Law of Exercise: This law has two sub-parts—law of use and law of disuse. The statements regarding these sub-parts run as under:
Law of use; ‘‘When a modifiable connection is made between a situation and response that connection’s strength is, other things being equal increased.” .
Law of disuse: ““When a modifiable connection is not made between a situation and response, during a length of time, that connection’s strength is decreased.”
In this way. law of use refers to the strengthening of connection with practice while the law of disuse to the weakening of connection or forgetting, when the practice is discontinued. In brief, it can be said that Law of Exercise as a whole, emphasizes the need of repetition, practice and drill work in the process of learning.
All these three laws—law of readiness, law of effect and Jaw of exercise, cast a great influence in making us learn so many things in our life. The laws imply the following proverbs and maxims:
‘You can lead a horse to water but you cannot make him drink.” ‘‘Nothing succeeds like success.”” ‘Practice makes a man perfect.”
In addition to the laws of readiness. exercise and effect, Thorndike’s idea of connectionism provided some of the following important laws:
(i) Law of multiple response or varied reactions: The law implies that when an individual is confronted with a new situauon he responds in a variety of ways before arriving at the correct response.
(ii) Law of Attitude: Learning is guided by a total attitude or ‘seu of the organism. The learner performs the task properly if he has developed a healthy attitude towards the task.
(ii) Law of Analogy: An individual responds to a new situation on the basis of the responses made by him in similar situations in the past. He makes responses by comparison of analogy.
(iv) Law of Associative Shifting: The statement of law runs thus“We can get any response from the learner of which he is capable, associated with any situation to which he is sensitive.” In other words, any response which is possible can be linked with any stimulus. Thorndike clarified his stand through one of his experiments in which he demonstrated how a catcan be trained to stand up at command. He concluded that first of all, a bit of fish is dangled before the cat while you say ‘stand up’. After enough trials, there will be a stage when you would not need the help of the fish. The oral signal or command will alone evoke the response. The idea put through this law gave birth to a new theory of learning known as Theory of Conditioning.
Practical implications of Thorndike’s contributions in the field of learning. Thorndike’s theory of trial and error has enough educational Significance. It tries to explain the process of learning, carefully on the basis of actual experiments performed. Not only the animal’s but human learning also, to a greater extent follows the path of trial and error. A child while confronted with a mathematical problem, tries so many possibilities for its solution, before he arrives at the correct one. Even the discoveries and inventions in various fields of knowledge are the results of trial and error process.
For example, let us take the discovery made by Archimedes in the form of his well-known principle. He was confronted with a problem given by his Emperor. There was a Drive that he would be beheaded if he could not solve the problem. There was a Block as he could not think of any solution. The problem was difficult. He went on experimenting and made a number of attempts (trials) for the solution of his problem. One day while taking his batb, he got chance success in one of his attempts and this led to the formulation of the law of floating bodies.
But the excessive use of the method, trial and error, without caring for the development of understanding should not be encouraged under any circumstances. We cannot reduce the human learning as mechanical and blind folded as advocated by this theory. It must be supported by reason, understanding and insight. Trials and practice coupled with insight, will make the process of learning more effective than either of the methods adopted alone.
As far as Thorndike’s laws of learning are concerned, they carry useful implications in the following ways:
1. If one wants to learn a thing, he must be quite willing to learn it by fully realising its importance to him. An instructor or a teacher on the other hand, for teaching effectively, must try to prepare the learner to learn by bringing the mechanism of motivation into operation.
2. Whatever we want to learn or teach, we must first try to identify the things that are to be remembered or forgotten. After this, we may try to strengthen the bonds or connections between the stimuli and responses of those things, which are to be remembered, through repetition, drill and reward. For forgetting, the connections should be weakened through disuse and annoying results.
3. What is being taught or learnt at one time should be linked with past experiences and Jearning on the one hand and with tho future learning on the other for utilising the benefits of the mechanism of association, connection or bonds in the process of learning.
4. The learner should try to see similarities and dissimilarities between the different kinds of responses to stimuli and with the help of comparison and contrast should try to apply the learning of something in one situation to other similar situations.
5. The learner should be encouraged to do his task independently. He must try various solutions of the problem before arriving at 3 correct one. But in every case he should be careful not to waste his time and energy by repeating his mistakes and proceed blindly.
In short, Thorndike’s theory of trial and error learning along with his laws of learning have contributed a lot in the field of learning. It has made the learning purposeful and goal-directed and has emphasized the importance of motivation, It has also given an impetus to the work of practice, drill and exercise and highlighted the psychological importance of rewards and praise in the field of learning.
Theory of classical conditioning
Ivan Pavlov and Conditioning: In his laboratory, while studying the functioning of the digestive system, a Russian psychologist named Ivan Pavlov (1849-1936) encountered an unforeseen problem: the experimental dogs salivated not only upon actual eating but also when they saw the food, noticed the man who usually brought it, or even heard the footsteps of their feeder. Pavlov began to study this phenomenon, which he called ‘‘Conditioning’’. Since the type of conditioning emphasized was a classical one—quite different from the conditioning emphasized by other psychologists at the later stage—it has been renamed as classical conditioning. For understanding the nature of the process of conditioning, let us have an idea of the type of experiments performed by Pavlov.
In one of his experiments, Pavlov kept a dog hungry for a few days and then tied him into the experimental table which was fitted with certain mechanically controlled devices. The dog was made comfortable and distractions were excluded as far as it was possible to do. The observer kept himself hidden from view of the dog but was able to view the experiment by means of a set of mirrors. Arrangement was made to give food to the dog through automatic devices. Every time the food was presented to the dog, he also arranged for the ringing of a bell. When the food was presented to the dog and the bell was rung, there was automatic secretion of saliva from the mouth of the dog. The activity of presenting the food accompanied with a ringing of the bell was repeated several times and the amount of saliva secreted was measured.
After several trials, the dog was given no food but the bel! was rung. In this case also the amount of saliva secreted was recorded and measured. It was found that even in the absence of food (the natural stimulus), the ringing of the bell (an artificial stimulus) caused the dog to secrete the saliva (natural response).
The above experiment thus, brings into the picture the four essential elements of the conditioning process. The first element is a natural stimulus, technically known as unconditioned stimulus (US) !.e., food. It results in a natural response known as uncondiiioned response (UR). This response constitutes the second element. The third element is the artificial stimulus like ringing of the bell which is technically known as Conditioned Stimulus (CS). It is substituted in place of the natural stimulus (food). Initially the conditioned stimulus does not evoke the desired response. i.e. conditioned response (CR), the fourth element is the chain of the conditioning process. However, as a result of conditioning, one learns to produce behaviour to form conditioned response asa reacticn of conditioned stimulus.
The theory of conditioning as advocated by Pavlov, thus, considers learning as a habit formation and is based on the Principle of Association and Substitution. It is simply a stimulusresponse type of learning where in place ofa natural stimulus like food, water, sexual contact etc., the artificial stimulus like the sound of the bell, sight of the lignt of a definite colour etc., can evoke a natural response. When both the artificial or natural stimulus (ringing of the bell) and natural stimulus (fvod) are brought together several times. the dog becomes habituated or conditioned to respond to this situation. There is perfect association between the types of stimuli presented together. As a result, after some time natural stimulus can be substituted or replaced by an artificial stimulus and this artificial stimulus 1s able to evoke the natural response.
John Watson and Theory of Conditioning: John Watson (18781958), the father of bzhaviourism supported Pavlov’s ideas on conditioned responses. Through his experiments, Watson tried to demonstrate the role of conditioning in producing as well as eliminating the emotional responses such as fear.
In one of his exreriments, he took an eleven-month-old child named Albert as his subject. The baby was given a rabbit to play with. The baby liked it very much and was pleased to touch its fur. He watched carefully the pleasant responses of the baby. After some time in the course of the experiment, aloud noise was produced to frighten the baby, as soon as the baby touched the rabbit. The baby was frightened. Each time he tried to touch the rabbit, the loud noise was produced and he responded with fear. After some time he began to fear the rabbit, evenif no loud noise accompanied it. In this way he learned to fear the rabbit through conditioning.
In another experiment of his.a child named Peter, who was afraid of rabbits was used as a subject. At first the rabbit was placed far from the boy so that it would not pose a threat. but gradually on each successive day, the rabbit was brought closer and closer. Eventually, the rabbit was placed on the table where Peter was eating and then onthe boy’s Jap. Having associated the animal with the pleasure of eating. the child’s fear vanished and he began to touch its fur and play with it. In this way, through a simple treatment of conditioning he Jearned not to fear the rabbit.
From these experiments, Watson and Pavlov, etc., concluded that all types oflearning can be explained through the process of conditioning. What this process is can be understood from the following:
It is a learning process whereby an artificial or conditioned stimulus is able to behave like a natural stimulus when both natural and artificial stimuli are presented together. In this kind of learning, association plays a great role sincethe individual responds to an artificial stimulus because he associates it with the natural stimulus.
The conditioning theory of learning put forward by Watson and Pavlov actually involves the conditioning of the Respondent behavjour through a process of stimulus association and substitution. Here the responses of the learner become so much conditioned — behaving in the same way or responding similarly to a similar situation that he does not care for the natural stimuli for evoking the related natural response. Asa result the new substituted stimulus behaves like the original stimulus and is able to evoke the desired response.
Principles of classical conditioning
The theory of classical conditioning emphasized by Pavlov and Watson gave birth to a number of important concepts and principles in the field of learning as under:
Extinction: It was noted by Paviov that if the conditioned stimulus (ringing of the bell) is presented alone a number of times without the food, the magnitude of the conditioned response of salivation begins to decrease, and so does the probability of its appearing at all. This process related with the gradual disappearance of the conditioned response on disconnecting the S-R association is Called extinction.
Spontaneous Recovery: It was also discovered by Pavlov that after extinction, when a conditioned response is no longer evident. the behaviour often appears again spontaneously but at a lower strength. This phenomenon—the reappearance of an apparently extinguished conditioned response (CR) after an interval in which the pairing of conditioned stimulus (CS) and unconditioned stimulus (US) bas not been repeated—is called Spontaneous recovery. The process of spontaneous recovery makes us believe that somehow the learning is supressed rather than forgotten. As time goes by, the suppression may become so strong that there will, ultimately, be no more poss:bility of spontaneous recovery.
Stimulus Generalization
Pavlov’s dog provided conditioned response (Salivation) not at the sight of the food but to every stimulus like ringing of the bell, appearance of light, sound of the footsteps of the feeder, etc., associated with its getting of the food. Similarly, Watson’s boy Albert showed fear not only after touching the rabbit but merely at the sight of a rabbit, a white fur coat and even Santa Claus’ whiskers. Responding to the stimuli in such a generalized way was named as stimulus generalization referring to a particular state of learning behaviour in which an individual once conditioned to respond to a specific stimulus is made to respond in the same way in response to other stimuli of similar nature.
Stimulus discrimination
Stimulus discrimination is the opposite of stimulus generalization. Here in sharp contrast to response in a usual fashion the subject learns to react differently in different situations. For example, the dog may be made to salivate only at the sight of the green light and not at the red or others. Going further, the salivation might be elicited at the sight of particular intensity or brightness of the green light but got the other. In this way, through the mechanism of stimulus discrimination, conditioning may help us in learning to react only toa single specific stimulus out of the multiplicity of stimuli and enabling us to distinguish and discriminate among a variety of stimuli present in our environment.
Implications of classical conditioning
In our day-to-day life, we are usually exposed to simple classical conditioning. Fear, love and hatred towards an object, phenomenon or event are created through conditioning. A father who, after returning home from his office, always rebukes and punishes his child without caring to know the basic reasons may condition his child to fear him, or develop anxiety reactions at the time of his returning home. The child may further develop a feeling of hatred towards his father or even a lot of discontent and hostile attitude towards his home. Similarly, a teacher with his defective ‘methods of teaching or improper behaviour may condition a child to develop a distaste and hatred towards him, his subject and even the school environment. On the-contrary, . affection, a loving attitude and sympathetic treatment given to the child by the parents at home or by the teachers at school may bring a desirable impact on him through the process of conditioning.
From the beginning most of our learning is associated with the process of conditioning. A child learns to call his father ‘daddy’ and his mother ‘mummy’, his dog as ‘Montu’ through the process of conditioning i.e., stimulus-response association and substitution. As a result of stimulus generalization, he may attribute the name of daddy to all adult males, mummy to all adult females and call all dogs by the name Montu. Gradually, he comes to the stage of stimulus discrimination and then learns to discriminate and recognize and attribute different names to different persons, animals and objects. This phenomenon of stimulus generalization and discrimination goes on up to quite a late stage in our life. Often we meet a person and dislike him or her at first sight merely because that individual reminds us of someone else we do not like. We do not like to mix with people belonging to another faith, religion or caste and often develop a feeling of hatred and enmity towards them even if we have not directly experienced anything unpleasant.
What is termed as abnormality in one’s behaviour, toa great extent, may be taken as learned. This learned pattern of one’s behaviour is acquired through conditioning. For example, a child may be conditioned to develop dog phobia. He may become so frightened of dogs after being bitten by one that he is reluctant to venture out alone. In a more complex case, a young woman who has had several unfortunate encounters with adult males may become so worried in the presence of any adult male that she is unable to have normal social relations with adult males, much less satisfactory sexual ones.
Thus, much of our behaviour in the shape of interests, attitudes, habits, sense of application or criticism, moods and temperaments, etc., is fashioned through conditioning. The process of conditioning, not only helps us in learning what is desirable but also helps in eliminating, avoiding or unlearning of so many undesirable habits, unhealthy attitudes, superstitions, fear and phobias through deconditioning. An individual who hates a particular person or object may be made to seek pleasure in its company. Another individual who thinks it a dangerous sign if a cat crosses his way can be made to give up his false belief.
Operant conditioning
Although classified and included in the category of conditioning, operant conditioning differs a lot from the classical conditioning advocated by Paviov and Watson. The most outstanding difference lies in the order related with the initiation and response i.e., stimulusresponse mechanism. In classical conditioning the organism is passive. It must wait for something to happen for responding. The presence of a stimulus for evoking a response is essential. The behaviour cannot be emitted in the absence of a cause. The child expresses fear only when he hears a loud noise, the dog waits for food to arrive béfore salivating. In each of such instances, the subject has no control over the happening. He is made to behave in response to the stimulus situations. Thus, the behaviour is said to be initiated by the environment, the organism simply responds.
Skinner revolted against “‘no stimulus, no response’’ mechanism in the evolution of behaviour. He argued that in practical situations in our life, we cannot always wait for things to happen in the environment. Man is not a victim of the environment. He may often manipulate the things in the environment with his own initiative. Therefore, it is not always essential that there must be some known stimuli or cause for evoking a response. Quite often, most of our responses could not be attributed to the known stimuli. The organisin itself initiates the behaviour. A dog, a child, or an individual ‘‘does”’ something, “‘behaves” in some manner, it ‘operates’ on the environment and in turn the environment responds to the activity. How the environment responds to the activity, rewarding or not, largely determines whether the behaviour will be repeated, maintained or avoided.
From where Skinner got the cue for such ideas is a question that can arise at this stage. Definitely, it was from the studies and observations of an earlier psychologist named Edward Lee Thorndike. Through his experiments, for propagating his famous trial and error theory of learning, Thorndike concluded that the rewards of a response (like getting food after a chance success through the randomized movements) leads to repetition of an act and the strengthening of S-R associations. These conclusions made Skinner begin a series of experiments to find the consequences of the rewards in repeating and maintaining behaviour. Based on the findings of his experiments, he concluded that ‘“‘behaviour is shaped and maintained by its consequences. It is operated by the organism and maintained by its results.” The occurrence of such behaviour was named as operant behaviour and the process of learning that plays the part in learning such behaviour was named by him as operant conditioning.
For understanding what Skinner propagated through his theory of operant conditioning, let us try to build a base by defining and explaining some of the concepts used by him for bringing out his theory.
Respondent and operant behaviour
As we have seen the earlier theories of learning assumed the existence of a known stimulus as a necessary pre-requisite for evoking a response. Skinner, the first time, got the idea that most of the responses could not be attributed to the known stimuli. He. defined two types of resposes the one “elicited” by known stimuli which he called as “respondent behaviour” and the other ‘‘emitted”’ by the unk sown stimuli which he called as ‘‘Operant behaviour”. Examples of respondent behaviour may include all reflexes such as jerking one’s hand when jabbed with a pin and the pupillary constr.ction on account of bright light or salivation in the presence of food.
In the respondent behaviour the stimulus preceding the response is responsible for causing the behaviour. On the other hand, in the operant behaviour the stimulus causing such behaviour is unknown and it is not important to Know the cause of the behaviour. Here it is not the stimulus but the consequences of the behaviour which ure more important and hence the operant behaviour is controlled by the strength of its consequences instead of stimuli. Examples of such behaviour may include the behaviours Jike moving one’s hand, arms or legs arbitrarily, a child abandoning one toy in favour of the other, eating a meal, writing a letter, standing up and walking about and similar other everyday activities.
Operant: Skinner considers an operant as a set of acts which constitutes an organism’s doing something e.g., raising its head, walking about, pushing a lever, etc.
Reinforcer and Reinforcement: The concept of reinforcement is identical to the presentation of a reward. A reinforcer is the stimulus whose presentation or removal increases the probability of a response re-occurring. Skinner thinks of two kinds of reinforcerspositive and negative.
A positive reinforcer is any stimulus the introduction or presentation of which increases the likelihood of a particular behaviour. Food, water, sexual contact, etc., arc classified as positive reinforcers. A negative reinforcer is any stimulus the removal or withdrawal of which increases the likelihood of a particular behaviour. Electric shock, a loud noise, etc., are said to be negative reinforcers.
The Schedules of Reinforcement: Skinner put forward the idea of planning of schedules of reinforcement of conditioning the operant behaviour of the organism. The important schedules are as under:
1. Continuous Reinforcement Schedule: It is hundred per cent reinforcement schedule where provision is made to reinforce or reward every correct response of the organism during acquisition of a learning. For example, a student may be rewarded for every correct answer he gives to the questions or problems put by his teacher.
2. Fixed Interval Reinforcement Schedule. In this schedule the organism is rewarded for a response made only after a set interval of time e.g., every 3 minutes or every 5 minutes. How many times he has given correct responses during this fixed interval of time does not matter; it is only on the expiry of the fixed interval, that he is presented with some reinforcement.
3. Fixed Ratio Reinforcement Schedule: In this schedule the reioforcement is given after a fixed number of responses. A rat, for example, might be given a pallet of food after a certain number of lever presses. A student may be properly rewarded after answering a fixed number of questions, say 3 or 5. Fixed ratio schedule is used in some factories, and by employers of casual workers or labourers where salary is paid on a piece work basis: number of garments sewn and number of baskets of fruit packed. ,
4. Variable Reinforcement Schedule: When reinforcement is given at varying intervals of time or after a varying number of responses, it is Called a variable reinforcement schedule. In this case reinforcement is intermittent or irregular. The individual does not know when he iS going to be rewarded and consequently he remains motivated throughout the learning process in the wait of reinforcement. The most common example of such schedule in human behaviour is the reinforcement operation schedules of gambling devices. Here rewards are unpredictable and keep the players well motivated through occasional returns.
Conclusion about the various reinforcement schedules
Reinforcement and its schedules play a key role in the conditioning or operant behaviour and acquisition of a learning. Where a continuous reinforcement schedule increases the response rate, the discontinuation of reinforcement may result in the extinction of that response or behaviour. Continuous reinforcement schedule, thus, yields the least resistance to extinction and the lowest response rate during learning. Therefore, learning of a response takes place quickly if every correct response is rewarded, but it is easily forgotten when the reinforcement is stopped. If reinforcement is given after a varying number of correct responses or at varying intervals of time, the response is remarkably resistant to extinction. However, the fixed interval reinforcement schedules are found to provide the lowest yield jn terms of performance as the individual may soon learn to respond
correctly only wher the time or turn of reinforcement arrives. Similarly, he may lose interest in getting reinforcement after a fixed interval or fixed number of correct responses. Weighing all these properly, Skinner suggests to begin with 100 percent schedule, practice the fixed interval or fixed ratio schedule and finally arrive at the variable reinforcement schedule for better results in learning or training.
Defining operant conditioning
Operant conditioning refers to a kind of learning process whereby a response is made more probable or more frequent by reinforcement. It helps in the learning of operant behaviour, the behaviour that is not necessarily associated with a known stimuli.
Distinction between classical and operant conditioning
Classical or respondent conditioning is based on respondent behaviour. Specifically, it deals with responses that invariably follow a specific stimulus and are thus elicited e.g.. blinking at a bright light. jumbling at an electric shock, salivation to the test of food, and so forth. In this greater importance is attached to the stimulus for eliciting the desired response. That is why it is also called a type S conditioning.
On the other hand, operant conditioning helps in conditioning or learning of operant behaviourbehaviour that ts emitted (rather than elicited). The organism seems to initiate operant behaviour on his own without a single, explicit, preceding stimulus. In this type of learning. much emphasis is placed on the response rather than the strmulus causing the response. That is why, it is also named as type R conditioning. [n type S conditioning, the problem with the trainer or teacher is to select appropriate stimuli for evoking desired response. On the other hand in R type conditioning, Out of many responses which an organism is capable of giving, the problem with the trainer or teacher isto evoke only the appropriate responses and then fix them properly with the help of suitable reinforcement.
The difference between these two types of conditioning may thus be summarized as under:
Classical respondent conditioning
Operant conditioning
1. It helps in the learning of respondent behavior
It helps in the learning of operant behavior
2. It is called type s conditioning to emphasize the importance of the stimulus in eliciting desired response
2. It is called type R are conditioning because of the emphasis on a response
3. In this type of conditioning beginning is being made with the help of specific stimuli that brings responses
3. Hey beginning it’s made away the response as they occur naturally or unnaturally shaping them into existence
4. Hair string of conditioning is used remaining by the magnitude of the condition response example the amount of saliva ( as in the case of the classical experiment of Pablo with the dog)
4. . Here’s strength of conditioning is shown by the response rate example The rate with which an operant response of course as a result of some enforcement
Skinner’s experiments regarding operant conditioning
B.F. Skinner conducted a series of exneriments with animals. For conducting the experiments with rats, he designed a special apparatus known as Skinner’s Box. [t was a much modified form of the puzzle box used by Thorndike for his experiments with cats. The darkened sound-proof box mainly consists of a grid floor, a system of light or sound produced at the tim? of delivering a pallet of food in the food cup, a lever and a food cup. It is arranged so that when a rat (bungry or thirsty) presses the lever, the feeder mechanism is activated, 4 light or a special sound is produced and a small pallet of food (or small drops of water) is released into the food cup. For recording the observations of the experiments, the lever is connected with a recording system which produces a graphical tracing of the lever pressings against the length of time the rat is in the box.
To begin with, Skinner, in one of his experiments, placed a hungry rat in the above described box. In this experiment pressing of the bar in a desirable way by the rat could result in the production of a click sound and presence of a food pallet. The click sound acted as acue or signal indicating to the rat that if it responds by going to the foud cup, it will be rewarded. The rat was rewarded for each of his proper attempts for pressing the lever. The lever press response having been rewarded, was repeated and when it occurred, it was again rewarded which further increased the probability of the repetition of the lever press response and so on. In this way, ultimately the rat learned the art of pressing the lever as desired by the experimenter.
For doirg experiments with pigeons, Skinner made use of another specific apparatus called ‘pigeons box’’. A pigeon in this experiment had to peck at a lighted plastic key mounted on the wall at head height and was consequently rewarded by receiving grain.
With the help of such experiments, Skinner put forward his theory of operant conditioning for learning not only the simple responses like pressing of the lever but also for learning the most difficult and complex series of responses.
Mechanism of operant conditioning
Operant conditioning as emphasized earlier is correlated with operant behaviour. An operant is a set of acts that constitutes an organism’s doing something. Hence the process of operant conditioning may start with the responses as they occur “‘naturally” of *“‘at random”. In case they do not occur naturally, thea attempts may be made for shaping them into existence. How it can be done
will be explained later on in this chapter under the heading “Shaping’’.
Once a response (as desired by the trainer, experimenter or teacher) occurs, it is reinforced through a suitable reinforcer (Primary or Secondary, positive or negative) In due course this response gets conditioned by constantly reinforcing it. In Skinner’s experimert a pallet of food worked as a positive primary reinforcer for the hungry rat. He got the reinforcement after emitting a certain response (pressing of the lever as desired by the experimenter). The Secondary reinforcement may also produce the same results as brought about by the primary reinforcement. It isa sort of neutral stimulus which acquires the reinforcing properties (rewarding value) after getting paired or associated with a primary reinforcer (e.g., food cr water). The clicking of a sound and lighting of a bulb in Skinner’s experiment may work as secondary reinforcement if they are paired with the appearance of a pallet of food.
The important thing in the mechanism of operant conditioning 1s the emitting of a desired response and its proper management through suitable reinforcement. Here the organism is to respond in such a way as to produce the reinforcing stimulus. The subsequent reinforcement gradually conditions the organism to emit the desired response and thus learn the desired act.
Shaping
There are situations specially in case of the acquisition of complex behaviour and learning of difficult skills, etc., where there mav arise very remote chances of the occurrence of the responses in a specific way at random (natural occurrence). In such cases waiting for an organism to behave in a specific way at random (the natural occurrence) may take a life time. For example, the chances for a pigeon to dance In a Specific way are extremely remote. The same holds true for a child learning Russian or even table manners. In these situations, where the desired responses do not occur at rundom (or naturally) efforts are made for eliciting the appropriate responses. It is done by building a chain of responses through a step by step process called “‘shaping.”’
In one of his experiments for shaping the behaviour of a pigeonto teach it to walk in a figure eight—Skinner watched its activity and gave it a small amount of grain (reward) when it moved in the proper direction. At first the pigeon got his reward for simply turning its head in the right direction, then for taking a step in the right direction, then for making the correct turn, and so on, until it had learned to do a complete figure eight.
Shaping, in this way, may be used as a successful technique for making individuals learn difficult and complex behaviour and also for introducing desirable modifications in the behaviour. Behaviour modification technique and aversive therapy used in treating the
problem behaviour and abnormality have come into existence through the use of the shaping of behaviour mechanism.
Implicatiens of the theory of operant conditioning
Theory of operant conditioning has revolutionized the field of training or learning by bringing forward the following practical ideas and implications:
1. A response or behaviour is not necessarily dependent (contingent) upon a specific known stimuli. It is more correct to think that a behaviour or response is dependent upon its consequences. Therefore, for training an organism to learn a particular behaviour or response. he may be initiated to respond in such a way as to produce the reinforcing stimulus. His behaviour should get the reward and in turn he should again act in such a way that he is rewarded and so on. Therefore, the learning or training process and environment must be so designed as to create minimum frustration and maximum Satisfaction to a learner to provide him proper reinforcement for the desired training or learning.
2. The principle of operant conditioning may be successfully applied in the task of behaviour modification. We have to find something which is rewarding for the individual whose behaviour we wish to modify, wait until the desired behaviour occurs and immediately reward him when he does. When this is done, the rate with which the desired response occurs goes up. When the behaviour next occurs, it is again rewarded, and the rate of responding goes up even more. Going in the same way, we will be able to make the individual learn the desired behaviour.
3. The task of the development of human personality can be successfully manipulated through operant conditioning. According to Skinner, “we are what we have been rewarded for being. What we call personality is nothing more than consistent behaviour patterns that summarize our reinforcement history. We learn to speak English, for example, because we have been rewarded for approximating the sounds of the English language in our early home environment. If we happened to be brought up in a Japanese or a Russian home, we would learn to speak Japanese or Russian because when we approximately sounds in that language, we would have been atten to or rewarded in some other way’ (Hergenhahn, 1976, p. 87)
4. The theory of operant conditioning does not attribute motivation to internal processes within the organism. It takes for granted the consequences of a behaviour or response aS a source of motivation to further occurrence of that behaviour. Food is a reinforcer to a rat or pigeon. Knowledge of correct response is reinforcing to a learner. Secondary reinforcers also prove very important sources of motivation for a learner. Verbal praise, positive facial expressions of the trainer or teacher, feeling of success, scores, grades, prizes, medals and the Opportunity to do the work of one’s liking all constitute good motivator. In this way operant conditioning provided an external approach to motivation.
5. Operant conditioning lays stress on the importance of schedules in the process of reinforcement of the behaviour. In trying to train or learn a behaviour, therefore, great care is to be taken for the proper planning of the schedules of reinforcement.
6. This theory advocated the avoidance of punishment for un{earning the undesirable behaviour and for shaping the desirable behaviour. Punishment proves ineffective in the long run. It appears that punishment simply supresses behaviour and when the threat of punishment is removed, behaviour returns to its original level. Therefore, operant conditioning experiments suggested appropriate alternatives to punishment in the form of rewarding appropriate behaviour and ignoring the inappropriate behaviour for its gradual extinction.
7. In its most effective application, theory of operant conditioning has contributed a lot towards the development of teaching machines and programmed learning. The theory of operant conditioning has led us to think that learning proceeds most effectively if,
(i) the learning material is so designed that it creates less opportunities for facing failure and more opportunities for gaining SUCCESS,
(ii) the learner is given rapid feed-back concerning the accuracy of his learning, and
(iii) the learner is able to learn at his own pace.
These principles originating from operant conditioning have revolutionized the training and Jearning programmes. As a result, mechanical learning in the form of teaching machines and computer assisted instructions have replaced usual class room instructions.
Theory of insightful learning
The views propagated by behaviourists in the form of an association between stimuli and responses for understanding learning faced a great difficulty in explaining the learning process or behaviour involving higher cognitive abilities. The chance succes through trial and error or association through connectionism and conditioning may account for simple acquisition of knowledge, skills, interests habits and other personality characteristics, but it is absolutely insufficient to account for problem solving, creativity and acquisition of other similar cognitive behaviour including insight (learning that appears to come suddenly).
Dissatisfied with the approach of behaviourists, the cognitive psychologists tried to see learning as a more deliberate and conscious effort on the part of the individual rather than being a product of mere habit formation or stimulus response machine like mechanism. According to them, in a learning process, the learner does not merely receive or make responses to the stimuli, but he definitely processes.(inter-acts and does something) what he receives and his response is determined by that processing.
Thinking on this line, a group of German psychologists called Gestaltists, Wolfgang Kohler in particular, originated a learning theory known as insightful learning.
“Gestalt” is a German noun for which there is no equivalent in English. So the term was carried over into English psychological literature. The nearest English translation of Gestalt is ‘‘configuration’? or more simply “an organised whole in contrast to a collection of parts’. Gestalt psychologists consider the process of learning as a Gestalt—an organised whole. A thing cannot be understood by study of its constituent parts but only by study of it as a totality, is the basic idea behind this theory.
In the practical sense, Gestalt Psychology is primarily concerned with the nature of perception. According to it, an individual per ceives the thing as a whole while the Behaviourists and StimulusResponse Theorists define perception in such a way as to make it analogous with taking photographs. They think that sensation comes prior to meaning and consider these two acts as separate. But the Gestalt Psychologists do not separate sensation of an object from its meaning. They are of the opinion that unless a person sees some meaning in an object he will pay little or no attention to it. Furthermore, to a Gestalt Psychologist, the meaning of sensation or perception is always related to the total situation. According to them perception always involves a problem of organisation. A thing 1s perceived as a relationship within a field which includes the thing, the viewer and a complex background incorporating the viewer’s purposes and previous experience.
Gestalt Psychologists tried to interpret learning as a purposive, exploratory and creative enterprise instead of trial and error or simple stimulus-response mechanism. A learner, while learning, always perceives the situation as a whole and after seeing and evaluating the different relationships takes the proper decision in an intelligent way. He always responds to the proper relationships rather than the specific stimuli. Gestalt Psychology used the term ‘‘insight’’ to describe the perception of the whole situation by the learner and his intelligence in responding to the proper relationships. Kohler, first of all, used this term (insight) to describe the learning of his apes. Kohler conducted many experiments on chimpanzees and brought out a book Mentality of Apes in 1925 which was the result of his experiments, Conducted during the period 1913-17 on the Canary Island. These experiments show learning by insight. Some of them are given below:
(i) In one experiment, Kohler put the chimpanzee, Sultan, inside a cage and a banana was hung from the roof of the cage. A box was placed inside the cage. The chimpanzee tried to reach at the banana by jumping but could not succeed. Suddenly, he got an idea and used.the box as a jumping platform by placing it just below the hanging banana.
(ii) In another experiment, Kohler made this problem more dificult. Now it required two or three boxes to reach the bananas. Moreover, the placing of cne box over the other required different specific arrangements.
(iii) In a more complicated experiment, the banana was placed outside the cage of the chimpanzee. Two sticks, one longer than the other, were placed inside the cage. One was hollow at one end so that the other stick could be thrust into it to form a longer stick. The banana was so kept that it could not be picked up by any one of the sticks. The chimpanzee first tried these sticks one after the other but failed. Suddenly, he got a bright idea. The animal joined the two sticks together and reached the banana.
In these experiments, Kohler used many different chimpanzees. Sultan, who was the most intelligent of Kohler’s chimpanzees, could solve all the problems. Other chimpanzees could solve the problems only when they saw Sultan solving them.
These experiments demonstrated the role of intelligence and cognitive abilities in higher learning such as problem-solving. The apes, somewhat higher animals, did not resort to blind trial and error mechanism adopted by Thorndike’s cat or simple habit formation as in the case of Pavlov’s dog or Watson’s Albert. They reacted intelligently by:
(i) identifying the problem,
(ii) organising their perceptual field and
(iii) using insight (the term coined by Kohler)
to reach a solution. Once the situation is perceived as a whole and the perceptual field is properly organised, a problem becomes solvable through flashes of insight.
In human beings we come across such type of learning a number of times on different occasions. For example, a student may suddenly come to know that in the 9’s table, the sum of the digits in the answer is always 9 (e.g. 9x 5=45, 4+5=9 etc.) The student’s learning of a new meaningful relationship is, then a result of his insightful learning.
Though Kohler seemed to see insightful learning in terms of a sudden ‘“‘aha” or a bolt of Lightning, it is bound to depend upon the factors given below:
(a) Experience: Past experiences help in the insightful solution of the problems. A child cannot solve the problems of Modern Mathematics unless he is well acquainted with its symbolic language.
(b) Intelligence: Insightful solution depends upon the basic intelligence of the learner. The more intelligent the -individual is, the greater will be his insight.
(c) Learning situation: How insightfully the organism will react, depends upon tho situation in which he has to act. Some situations are more favourable than others for insightful solution. As a common observation, insight occurs when the learning situation is so arranged that all the necessary aspects are open for observation.
(d) Initial Efforts: Insightful learning has to pass through the process of trial and error. But this stage does not last long. These initial efforts, in the form of simple trial and error mechanism, open the way for insightful learning.
(e) Repetition and Generalization: After having an insighting solution of a particular type of problem, the organism tries to repeat it in another situation, demanding similar type of solution. The say found in one situation helps him to react insightfully in other identical situations.
Implications of the theory of insightful learning
The greatest contribution of the theory of insightful learning lies in the fact that it has made learning as a purposeful and goal-oriented task. It does not involve simple reflexive or automatic machine type responses. The learner has to be motivated by arousing his interest and curiosity in the learning process and he must be well acquainted with the specific aims and purposes of his learning.
Moreover, the emphasis on the importance of viewing the situation as a whole in this theory has given birth to an important maxim i.e., ‘from whole to parts” in the field of learning. If one wants to learn or memorise a poem, it should be presented to him as a whole and after reading or grasping it as a whole, it may be broken into
parts or stanzas for its effective memorization. Similarly, a problem required to be solved should be presented as a whole and after grasping it as a whole, it should be tried for the solution on a pieces meal basis.
The theory of insightful learning requires the organisation of the perceptual field and learning material in the form of a ‘‘Gestalt’’ i.e., as a Whole. Based on this phenomenon, we cannot treat any learning related with a subject or skill as the mere collection of isolated facts, information or unrelated behavioural acts. This fact has contributed much in the field of organisation of the curriculum, scheme of studies, work-plan and procedure of planning the schedule of learning or teaching of a skill or behaviour. What we see today in the form of an emphasis on unity and cohesiveness (in the form of Gestalt) within the learning acts or experiences in any scheme of studies or learning is nothing but a pattern of learning borrowed from the Gestaltist theory of insightful learning.
TRANSFER OF TRAINING OR LEARNING
Meaning
We learn so many things and perform many tasks in our-life. Sometimes when we learn or perform a new task, we find that it has been influenced by some of our previous learning or training. The fearning of addition and subtraction helps the child in learning multiplication and division. Learning of Mathematics helps in solving the numerical problems in Physics. Similarly, if one has learned to play tennis one finds it easier to learn to play Ping Pong or badminton. In this way learning or training in one situation influences our learning or performance m some other situation. This influence usually refers to the carry over of learning from one task to another. The learning or skill acquired in one task is transferred or carried over to other tasks. Not only the learning of the tricks of a trade or the knowledge and skil! acquired ina particular school subject is transferred to other situations, but also the habits, interests to other attitudes get transferred and try to influence the activities of the individual in future. Crow and Crow express it in the following words:
“The carry-over of habits of thinking, feeling, or working, of knowledge or of skills, from one learning area to another usually is referred to as the transfer of training—”. (1973, p. 323)
Sorenson also takes the same stand when he explains the meaning of transfer in the following words:
“Transfer refers to the transfer of knowledge, training, and habits acquired in one situation to another situation.” (1948, p. 387)
In this way wecan take transfer as a process by which some influence is exercised over our new learning or performance by our previous learning or training.
Types of transfer
There is no guarantee that learning in one situation or in one field will always help the learning in another situation or field. Sometimes the learning of one task creates difficulty in performing of learning another task. Having learned to pronounce BUT correctly, the child finds it difficult to pronounce PUT correctly. In this way transfer of training or learning also involves the possibilities of negative and adverse affects besides the positive ard favourable ones. Consequently, transfer is said to have the three following forms:
(i) Positive transfer
(ii) Negative transfer.
(iii) Zero transfer.
Transfer is said to be positive when something previously learned benefits performance or learning in a new situation. Similarly, when something previously learned hinders performance or learning in a hew situation, we call it negative transfer. In case the previous learning makes no difference at all to the performance or learning in a new situation, there is said to be zero transfer from the previous situation to the new one.
Sometimes it is also possible that some previous learning ‘may partly help and partly interfere with the performance or learning in a new situation. In learning to play a game of tennis, for example, a person learns so many things which are likely to be transferred in learning to play base-ball.
Promptness in starting, keen observations of the position of one’s opponents and movement of the ball and one’s attention on the game rather than on the spectators are some of the positive transfer effects. But there may be some negative transfer effects also. The base-ball comes to a faster rate of speed than a tennis ball does. The style of using the base-ball bat is als» different from that of the tennis racket. A similar thing may also be said about the influence of one’s mother-tongue on the subsequent learning of some other language. In this case also we have positive as well as negative transfer effects.
What brings transfer (Theories of transfer)
Various theories explaining the mechanism of transfer of training or learning have been put forward from time to time by different psychologists. Among these theories, the theory of identical elements or components theory of generalization and ideals are worth mentioning.
According to the theory of identical elements or components propagated by Thorndike, the transferpositive or negative—from one situation to another is possible to the extent that there are common or identical elements in the situations. For example, io learning typewriting and the piano the transfer takes place on account of the identical aspects in the two situations like the use of two hands required for pressing the keys with eye finger coordination, etc. Similarly, in the case of learning cycling and driving a car, the transfer does take place on account of the presence of common elements like steering movements, knowledge of the rules of the road, necessity of having proper visual perspective by looking ahead, etc. The presence of these common elements in the situations may bring either type of transfer —positive or negative. In case the presence of common elements help us to make an association in such a way that learning in one situation helps the other, the transfer is positive but in case the association so formed brings interference with the new learning, the transfer is negative.
Theory of Generalization. put forth by Charles Judd advocates the transfer of generalizations in the new situations in place of identical elements as suggested by Thorndike. While explaining the transfer mechanism, this theory says that as a result of certain experiences an individual may arrive at some conclusions or generalizations in the form of general rules, law or principies like : “‘In touching the fire, we get burnt’’, “‘The green or unripe fruits are sour or bitter in taste” etc. It is these generalizations, principles or rules that are put to use (through the transfer process) by the individual in the coming new situations (Judd, 1908).
The transfer of training or learning can also be explained on the basis of the Theory of ideals put forward by W.C. Bagley. According to this theory, transfer of learning or training takes place in the form of ideals. The experience we have, the generalizations or conclusions we arrive at, all do transfer if they are imbibed as idealsof some value or desirable—by the individual. For example, as experimentally demonstrated by Bagley (1922) the ideal of neatness developed on the basis of stress laid on doing things quite neatly in school is likely to be transferred in performing all other activities in a quite neat and clean way. Similarly. the attitudes and values like love for wisdom and honesty, thirst for knowledge, tolerance for other’s Opinion, spirit of enquiry, etc. When inculcated in children, in general, as idea!s and not simply in one area or at one time in one situation, are likely to be transferred to situations outside the school. Therefore, if we wish to seek positive transfer from one situation to another we must strive for the formation of general attitude for an ideal.
All the above theories seem to hold divergent opinions regarding the explanation of transfer from one situation to another. But in actual sense these differences are probably more than real. All these theories are complimentary and not contradictory. In one way or the other each one of them tries to explain the mechanism of transfer. By synthesizing the viewpoints of all these theories we can place ourselves in a position to know how transfer of learning or training takes place from one situation to another.
SAMMARY
Learning is defined as a process which brings relatively permanent changes in the behaviour of a learner through experience or practice. It can be classified into some specific categories depending upon
(i) the methods or techniques employed for bringing behavioural changes; like trial and error, conditioning, insightful learning, serial learning (i.e. learning in terms of sequence series) associate learning (learning through making associations or bonds), and chain learning (acquisition of one behaviour linked chain-wise with others) and
(ii) the specific area of the learning in which changes are introduced: like verbal learning, learning of motor skills, affective learning (learning of habits, interest etc.) and cognitive learning (learning of concepts, principles, problem-solving etc.).
Theory of Trial and Error Learning propagated by Thorndike emphasizes that we learn through a trial and error mechanism. In trying for a correct behaviour, one tries hard in so many ways and may commit so many errors before a chance success. On subsequent trials he may learn to avoid erroneous ways, repeat the correct ones and finally learn the proper way. Thorndike also propagated certain important laws of learning like law of readiness (i.e. one can learn if he is ready to learn), law of exercise (i.e. learning needs repetition or drill) and law of effect (i.e. the effect or consequence decides the fate of one’s learning).
Classical conditioning was first experimentally demonstrated by Ivan Pavlov through the conditioning of a dog to salivate when it heard bell. Ina normal way (without conditioning) the dog was supposed to salivate only inthe presence of some proper natural stimuli like food. However, when both enatural and artificial stimuli (e.g. food and ringing of the bell) were presented together a number of times. the dog learned (by forming an association) that it will get food when the bell rings. Subsequently the artificial stimulus (bell) became so strong asto produce salivation even when it was not accompanied by the natural stimulus (food).
Watson also demonstrated such type of conditioning by inducing fear in his eleven-month-old subject Albert. Most of our behaviour may be adjudged as the product of conditioning. One who fears the snake may be seento have fear from any stimuli appearing like a snake. Just even a piece of rope, picture of a snake or listening to the name ‘snake’ may evoke the same fear responses as could be evoked by the presence of some real snake. Responding to the stimuli in such a generalized way is referred to as stimulus generalization. The opposite of generalization ts discrimination. This is the process by which we learn to respond to one specific stimulus and to inhibit the responses to all other stimuli.
The phenomenon of extinction occurs when the subject learns to inhibit the conditioned responses (i.e. ringing of the bell does not result in getting food). In case it suddenly reappears on its own, the phenomenon is termed as spontaneous recover).
In operant conditioning, learning is dependent on its consequences. Those behaviours that are reinforced are likely to be repeated. and those that are not are unlikely to be repeated. A reinforcer in any event brings satisfaction and increases the likelihood that a response will be repeated. The success of operant conditioning depends upon the right choice of reinforcement schedule. The appropriate reinforcement of the step-by-step successive approximation of the desired behaviour called shaping, may-result in learning the most complex behaviour. The techniques of operant conditioning have been found to be quite useful today in the field of behaviour modification, programmed learning and computer assisted instructions.
Insightful learning, advocated by Gestaltists, emphasizes that human learning is not so mechanical, blind or habitual as explained by trial and error or conditioning theories. It is always purposeful and goal directed and is essentially based on one’s cognitive powers. Kohler, on the basis of his learning experiments performed on apes, concluded that (i) a learner always perceives the situation in a Gestalt form (as a whole), (ii) evaluates all the relationship and factors involved in the situation and (iii) ‘consequently, arrives at an insightful solution.
Whatever is learn through various methods of learning is influenced by the previous or subsequent learning. This influence or carry over of learning from one situation to another is termed as transfer of learning or training. It is positive when one learning helps the other and negative when the effects are adverse. According to the theory of identical elements propagated by Thorndike, the transferpositive or negative—from one situation to another is possible to the extent that there are common identical elements in the situations. Contrary to this two other theories, the theory of generalization and theory of ideals emphasize the transfer of generalization (generalized rules or principles) and ideals (the ideas of some value) in the coming learning situations in place of the identical elements. None of these theories is able to explain transfer in its total aspects. However, an eclectic view of all these theories may help us in this direction.
References and Suggested Readings
Ausubel, D., The Psychology of Meaningful Verbal Learning, New York: Grune & Stratton, 1963.
Bandura, A., Principles of Behaviour Modification, New York: Holt, Rinehart & Winston, 1969. i.
Crow, L.D & Crow. A., Educational Psychology (3rd India reprint New Delhi: Eurasia Publishing House, 1973.
Ellis, Henry. Transfer of Learning, New York: Macmillan, 1965.
Gagne. R.M.. The Conditions of Learning (2nd ed.) New York: Holt, Rinehart & Winston, 970.
Hergenhahn. B.R., An Introduction to Theories of Learning, Englewood Cliffs, New Jersey: Prentice Hall, 1976.
Hilgard, E.R. and Bower, G.H., Theories of Learning, (4th ed ) Englewood Cliffs, New Jersey: Prentice Hall, 1975.
Hilgard, E.Q., Theories of Learning (4th ed.) New York: Appleton-Century Crofts. 1976.
Holland, J.G. and Skinner., B.F., The Analysis of Behaviour, New York: McGraw-Hill, 1961.
Horton, D.L. & Turnage, T.W., Human Learning, Englewood Cliffs, Prentice. Hall, 1976.
Hull, C.L., Principles of Behaviour, New York: Appleton-Century-Crofts 1943,
Hulse, S.H., Deese, J and Egeth, H., The Psychology of Learning (4th ed.), New York: McGraw-Hill, 1975.
Kingsley, H.L. and Garry, R., The Nature and Conditions of Learning (2nd ed.), Englewood Cliffs, New Jersey: Prentice-Hall, 1957.
Kohler, W., The Mentality of Apes, New York: Harcourt, 1925. Kohler, W., Gestalt Psychology. New York: Liverright, 1929.
Kohler, W., The Task of Gestal: Psychology, Princeton, New Jersey: Princeton University Press, 1969.
Mikulas, W.L, Concepts in Learning, Philadelphia: Saunders, 1974.
Murphy, Gardner, An Introduction to Psychology, (2ad Indian Reprint), New Delni: Oxford & 1BH, 1968.
Nevin, J.A. & Reynolds, G.S. (Ed.), The Study of Behaviour: Learning, Motivation Emotion and Instinct, Glenview, illinois: Scott, Foresman, 1973.
Paviov, J.P., Conditioned Re flexes, Oxford: Clarendon Press, 1927. Peterson, L.R., Learning, Glenview, Illinois: Scott. Foresman, 1975.
Pressey, Robinson and Horrocks, Psychology in Education (2nd Ed.), Delhi: University Book Stall, 1967. °
Rachlin, H., Introduction to Modern Behaviourism, San Franciscu: W.H. Freeman and Company, 1970.
Reynolds, G.S., A Primer of Operant Conditioning (2nd ed.) Glenview, Illinois: Scott, Foresman, 1975.
Skinne B.F., The Behaviour of Organisms, New York: Appleton: Century-Crofts, 1938,
Skioner, B.P., Science and Human Behaviour, New York: Macmillan, 1953.
Skinner, BF., The Technology of Teaching, New York: Appleton-CenturyCrofts, 1968.
Skinner, B.F., About Behaviorism, New York: Knopf, 1974,
Smith, H.P., Psychology in Teaching, Englewood Cliffs, New Jersey. PrenticeHall, 1962.
Sorenson, Herbert, Psychology in Education, New York: McGraw Hill, 1948.
Stephens, J.M., Hand Book of Class-room Learning, New York: Holt, 1965.
Thorndike, E.L., The Elements of Psychology, New York: Seiler, 1905. Thorndike, E.L., Human Learning, New York: Cornell University, 1931.
Tolman. E.C., Purposive Behaviour in Animals and Men, New York: Century, ] .
Watson, J.B., Psychology from the Standpoint of Behaviorist, Philadelphia: Lippincott, 1919.
Woodworth, R.S., Psychology, London: Methuen, 1945.
Chapter 13
MEMORY—REMEMBERING AND FORGETTING
What is memory?
Learning occupies a very important place in one’s life. It is the basis of our survival as well as the development and progress of society. However, our best efforts in learning may turn into a futile exercise if the products of learning are not utilised by us soon after or at a later stage. For making use of the material learnt it must remain in our mind, stored up somehow, to be used when the need arises. In the world of psychology this ability or power of our mind to store the past experiences of learning and utilising them (by re producing) at a later stage is known as Memory.
Ryburn agrees to the above meaning of the term memory when he says ‘The power that we have to ‘store’ our experiences, and to bring them into the field of consciousness some time after the experiences have occurred, is termed, memory”. (1956, p. 220).
In this way, memory is regarded as a special ability of our mind to conserve or store what has been previously experienced or acquired through learning and then. at some later stage to enable us to make use of its reproduction or revival. The judgment about the strength of this power or quality of this ability can be made through performance in terms of the quality of the revival or reproduction of what has been learned and stored up. In thts sense, a good memory must reflect ‘‘an ideal revival’? as Stout puts it, “‘So far as ideal revival is merely reproductive—this productive aspect of ideal revival requires the object of past experiences to be reinstated as far as possible in the order and manner of their original occurrence” (1938. p. 521).
However, the term memory or the process of memorization cannot be termed in so simple a manner as to be viewed merely in terms of reproduction or revival of past experiences or learning. It 1s quite a complex process which involves factors like learning, retention, recall and recognition as explained below in the mechanism of the process of memorization.
Mechanism of the process of memorization
Our mind possesses a special ability by virtue of which every experience or learning leaves behind memory images or traces which are conserved in the form of ‘engrams’. Thus what is learned leaves its after-effect which is conserved in the form of engrams composed of memory traces. This preservation of the memory traces by our central nervous system or brain is known as retaining of the learned or experienced act. How long we can retain depends upon the strength and quality of the memory traces. When we try to recollect or repeat our past experiences or learning, we make use of the memory traces. If we are successful in the revival of our memory traces, Our memory is said to be good. But if, somehow or the other, the memory traces have died out, we will not be able to reproduce or make use of our past experiences or learning. In this case it 1s said that we are not able to retain what has been learned or in other words we have forgotten.
In this way, for memorization, learning is the primary condltion. If there is no learning there will be no remembering. At the second stage we should see that these learning experiences are retained properly in the form of mental impressions or images so that they can be revived when the need arises. The third and the fourth stage in the process of memorization can be called Recognition and Recall. Recognition is a much easier and simpler psychological process than recall. The difference between these two terms can be explained by the following example:
Suppose, Mr. Ram Nath has been your class mate. You have passed happy times with him. The old experiences have been retained in the form of memory traces. Now if you are told only the name of the gencleman and you can recollect all what you have experienced im his company and can describe his personality, it is said that you have been able to recall your past experience. In this case memory traces are said to be retained in a proper form. But if the memory traces are very weak and therefore, retention is poor, then recall (perfect revival of the past experiences) may not be possible.
In such cases ‘recognition’ is possible. Recognition is nothing but the awareness of an object or situation as having been known to the person. Here the presence of the already experienced object or thing makes the task of recollection easy. In the above example, the photographs or the actual presence of Mr. Ram Nath may facilitate the task of recollecting past experiences.
From the above discussion it can be easily concluded that the process of memorization begins with learning or experiencing something and ends with its revival and reproduction. Therefore memory is Said to involve four stages i.e., learning or experiencing something. its retention and finally its recognition and recall.
Remembering and memory
As emphasized above, memory denotes the ability or power of our mind to retain and reproduce cur learning. This power or
ability thus helps in the process of memorization. Many times wd use the word ‘remembering’ in place of ‘memorization’. Both of these terms carry the same meaning. While differentiating between memory and remembering Levin says “Memory can be likened ta a giant filling cabinet in the brain, with data sorted, classified and cross-filed for future reference. Remembering depends on how the brain goes about coding its input.” (1978, p. 297).
In this way while memory is a noun denoting the power or ability of our mind, memorization or remembering is a verb that processes aut the directives of the memory i.e., power or ability of our mind.
However, in a practical sense, when we say that a person has a good or poor memory we always weigh it in terms of “remembering what has previously been learned” (Woodworth and Marquis 1948 p. 42-43).
It is in this sense that the terms memory and remembering, in spite of their being as noun and verb, are used as synonymous terms. In the present text, as the reader will find, we would be using these terms interchangeably.
Types of memory
Psychologists have tried to classify memory into certain types according to their nature and purposes served. The broad classification consists of immediate memory, short-term memory and longterm memory. Let us see what we mean by these types:
Immediate Memory: Immediate memory or sensory memory is that memory which helps an individual to recall something a split second after having perceived it. In such type of memory retentive time is extremely brief/generally from a fraction of a second to several seconds. Old sensory impressicns disappear as they are “erased’ by new information.
Immediate memory is needed when we want to remember a thing for a short time and then forget it. We enter the cinema hall, see the seat number given on our ticket. After occupying the seat, we forget the seat number. We look up a telephone number from the directory and remember it. But after making the call, we usually forget it. In all cases of a similar nature immediate memory is needed which helps us to learn a thing immediately with speed and accuracy, remembering it for a short time and forgetting it rapidly after use.
Short-Term Memory. This type of memory is also temporary, though not nearly as short-lived as the immediate memory. For further distinguishing it from short-term memory the things given below should also be taken into account:
i) Where the retention time is less than one second in immediate memory, the information temporarily stored up in shortterm memory may endure as long as thirty seconds or so, even if the material is not being rehearsed.
(ii) Whereas the sensory image in immediate memory decays regardless of the learner’s action, rehearsal by the learner can keep material in short-term memory indefinitely.
(iii) The span of immediate memory exceeds the short-term memory span. Whereas five to nine items (‘‘the magical number, seven plus or minus two’’) can be held in shortterm memory at any one time, about eleven to thirteen items are available for recall in immediate memory for at least a half second. However, some people are able to retain much more information in their short-term memories by a process called chunking, which groups information by coding it e.g. the number 143254376 can be remembered by listing under three heads: 143, 254, 376.
Long-Term Memory: Unlike short-term memory, long-term memory has a seemingly limitless capacity to store information, undergoes little or no decay, and requires little, if any, rehearsal. In addition to these characteristics, long-term memory codes informasion according to meaning, pattern and other characteristics. It is this memory that helps us to remember a number of things on a relatively permanent basis. Remembering our identifying data like our name, father’s name, date of birth, date of marriage, etc., is the simplest example of our long-term memory. With the help of our long-term memory we can store, retain and remember at our ease at record notice most of the things in our life and can thus make things in our life quite easy.
The study of memory
The experimental study of memory is done to know the facts about the process and nature of memorization, the individual differences in memory, and learning about the economical methods and best possible outcomes of the process of memorization. Let us discuss the materials, apparatus and techniques used for the studies of memory.
1. Material: Materials used in most experiments on human memory consist of simple verbal materials like serial list, paired associate lists and connected discourse.
2. A serial list is composed words (for example RAT, CAP, TENT, PAINT, etc). or number (e.g. 29, 57, 36, 72, etc.) or meaningless nonsense syllables (e.g. NAL, SOK, PAB, KAZ, etc.)
3. A paired-associate list consists of a series of paired (but not necessarily related) words, digits or non-sense syllables presented sequentially (e.g. CORN-MUSIC, BOX-CAT; FOOD-BOOK, etc).
In the materiat called connected discourse, we may include excerpts of actual blocks of language, either written or spoken. These might be entire sentences, paragraphs or longer passages from any piece of literature or lecture.
Apparatus: Various techniques are used for the presentation of the memorization material before the learner. The experimenter himself may simply read it loud or may use a tape-recorder for this purpose and the subjects may then be required to say or write what they remembered. In most of the experiments, however, the verbal material is presented visually with the help of an instrument called memory drum. For example, the words of a serial list may be presented one at a time for a specified duration through a window-like opening of this drum to be operated systematically. The subjects are asked to recall as many words as possible. The list is presented again and again while the experimenter plots how long and how many trials it takes to learn a task. Recent technological developments have replaced the age-old memory drum apraratus with sophisticated electronic computers.
Measures und Criteria: Memory—good or bad—can be inferred through retentivity and the amount of retention may be measured directly if we know how much material was learnt originally by using the formula:
Amount of Retention=Amount learnt—Amount forgotten.
What is actually retained by the learner can be made known to the experimenter by testing the performance of the learner through reproduction i.e., in terms of recognition and recall. Therefore, tests of recognition and recall make the usual direct measures of one’s retentive power or memory.
Two most commonly used procedures for measuring recognition are tests of simple recognition and multiple-alternative recognition.
In simple recognition tests, the learner may be presented with a photograph or an item to decide whether or not he has seen it before. In a multiple alternate recognition test one has to recognize a particular person or item seen before out of several pictures or items presented to him.
The important methods employed in the measurement of recalls are free recall, probed recall and serial recall.
In free recall methods we ask a subject to recall in any order as many items as possible from the list they have seen or recall anything in any wav from a stanza or poem read. In probed recall, we may provide the subject with a cue for suggesting the appropriate item. For example, in a paired-associate list consisting of a BOX-CAT, we may ask: tell us what word appeared with BOX in the list seen by you? For the items of a serial list, this cue may be in the shape of the location of the item in the list: top, bottom, middle and so forth. In the method of serial recall, we ask the subject to repeat the items in exactly the same order as was previously presented to him during the experiment.
In addition to emploving tests of recognition and recall for measuring one’s retention power; we may employ certain other methods. Two of such important methods devised by the psychologist Ebbinghaus are known as Learning Method and Saving Method.
In the learning method, the subjects are shown a list of verbal material (words or nonsense syllables). They try hard to remember this material by taking the syllables one by one over some trials. After each trial they are required to write down the words or syllables they remembered. The subjects will differ in terms of having more or less trials in learning the lst correctly. One’s power of retention may then be judged in terms of the number of trials required to reproduce a standard list of verbal material (e.g. 12 nonsense syllables like NAL, SOK, BAP, etc., in the Ebbinghaus’s study). The better the retentive power, the less will be the trials required for remembering the complete list.
Saving method comes into the picture after making the subjects learn all the words or syllables correctly after certain trials. The subject may then be given a period of rest. Naturally during this period, they are sure to forget. more or less material. For relearning they are provided with trials. The individuals will differ in requiring more or less trials for such relearning and reproducing the complete list. The number of trials or repetition saved in the second learning (relearning) are then considered as a measure of the power of retention. If, for example, a subject had 10 trials to learn all the 12 non-sense syllables correctly in the first learning and took 7 trials to learn again in the second learning session he had a saving of 3 trials. His retention power will definitely be better than that of another who needed.8 trials again or had only 1 saving, assuming of course, that het had 10 trials in the first learning.
Economy in memorizing
The problem of having economy in memorizing something has persuaded many psychologists to devise various methods of memorization. All these methods aim at pointing out the way of utilizing the available time to best advantage. Some of these methods are described below:
1. Recitation method: In this method the learner first reads the matter once or twice and then tries to recite and recall that without Jooking at that material. In this way, the recitation method provides continuous self-appraisal. The learner evaluates himself from time to time and notes the points which he has been unable to recall. To these points due attention can be paid and thus he is saved from unnecessarily repeating the already memorized material Moreover, the recitation method is more stimulating than the continued rereading of the same material. It helps in detecting errors earlier and avoid them by close attention.
2. Whole and part methods: There are two methods of memorizing a thing. for example take a poem. One is to read the poem again and again from the beginning till the end as a whole. This is called whole method of memorization. In the other method—part method, the poem is divided into parts and each part is memorized separately.
Both these methods have advantages as well as disadvantages. Which of the two would prove suitable and economical depends upon the prevailing conditions and nature of the thing to be memorized. The whole method is found better than the part method in case of memorizing a thing requiring less time, say, a short poem; while the part method proves more advantageous if the poem is a longer one. In some cases a combination of these two methods has been found most suitable. In this combined method, the learner Starts initially by the whole method and tries to locate the areas of difficulty. These difficult portions are attended through the part method. After that the subject once again comes to the whole method and is able to remember it successfully.
3. Spaced and unspaced methods (methods of distributed and massed practice)
In the spaced or distributed practice method of memorization, the subject is not required to memorize the assigned material in one continuous sitting. After memorizing it for some time, some rest is provided and in this way the principle of ‘work and rest’ is followed in this method. For example, if one has to memorize a piece of poetry by this method. then in the beginning he will be advised to go on repeating it. After some time he will be given some rest. Again he will memorize it and take rest. In this way with repeated intervals of work and rest he will be able to have mastery over the assigned piece.
On the other hand, in unspaced or massed practice method of memorization the subject has to memorize the assigned material at one sitting without any interval or rest. Hence in this method the memorization work is done continuously without interruption til it as mastered.
Many experimental studies have beon done to assess the selative value of these two methods. Although in the case of short lessons it has been thought not to have any interval vet in general, the results have been in favour of the spaced method. It has been observed that instead ot working continuously without taking rest, itis better to distribute the hours of work in few sittings and introduce the periods of rest in between these sittings. This helps m removing the monotony caused by long periods of study. Attention also does not flag and fatigue is avoided. Tho subject gets a fresh start after a period of rest and thus his interest can be maintained in the task.
Which of these methods is the best and appropriate is a difficult question to be answered. Definitely, all these above methods are known as economical and can be found fruitful on one of the other occasion. But wecannot say for certain that any method can be necessarily advantageous under all circumstances. In fact the economy an the use of a particular method depends more on the abilities of the individual und the nature and extent of the matenat to be memorized than the method itself. Besides the adoption of a partcular method of memorization there are so many external and internal factors lying within the environment and individual himself which affects the process of memorization and consequently helps or obstructs the progress of an individual on the path of memonzation. Therefore, care should also be taken to secure the appropnate conditions and situations for getting best results in memorization
Training in memory
Whether memory can be improved by training or not is a controversial sssue. But its improvement or training w & Commonly expressed desire on the part of every individual. Every one of us s keen to improve his sense organs and muscles etc. But the improve ment of memory a6 such is not possible In this connectwa the advice given by Mr. Morgan and Gilhtand seems to be quite valueable. They write that Memory training is not like muscle training. You can make a muscle develop by any kind of use. Memory s svt helped by any kind of exercise.” (1942, p. 210).
Therefore, mere repetition of materials for the sake of a memorr zation in the form of mental exercise does not yreld enduring and etfective results. Now again wecome to our basic question—can It be possible through any mean to have some improvement in our memory? If possible, what are the specific. points which should be kept in mind io order to achieve best results in the task of memorization?
As emphasized earlier, memory consists of four factors—learning, retention, recognition and recall. Improvement in any one or more of the constituents is likely to improve the memory as a whole. Therefore, the question regarding the improvement of memory, for its logical answer can be broken into the following four questions.
Can learning be improved ?
Can the power of retention be improved ?
Can recall be improved ? and lastly,
Can recognition be improved ?
Let us try to answer these questions.
For the retention it is said that it is, by all means, native and inherited and therefore, cannot be improved by training. At the most we can try to protect retentiveness by some hygienic measures but it is hardly possible to improve it by trainimg. In the case of “recognition” also it is difficult to say whether it can be improved by training as it happens to be a very prompt and spontaneous act.
The remaining two constituents—learning and recall, have been observed to be improved by training. Let us see how theycan be improved. First of all we will consider the improvement of recall. The following suggestions may bring fruitful results in this direction:
1. While trying to recall something, have yourself free from excessive anxiety, fear and other emotional factors that try to block memory.
2. Never think that you would not be able to recall something. Have confidence in yourself. Be quite normal and avoid nervousness. After that, apply your energies to the task of recalling with full concentration.
3. Remember that association of ideas, connection and systematic thinking, help very much in the task of recalling. For example, if you need to recall the place where you put the key of your lock, then try to think systematically by seeking help from the principle of association. Where was I just before this time, What was I doing, Oh, I was taking my bath, sol may have put it in the cup-board of me bath room; andso on, you can ultimately recall the exact plaoe.
4. Do not engage yourself in fighting to recall a thing for a long time. If you find it difficult to recall, then give it up for the timebeing and attempt it afresh, after you have relaxed for some time.
After having given due consideration to the process of recall we come to the most important factor of memory i.e., learning. Improvement of memory to a large extent rests upon this factor which can be improved by training. Now, how can learning be improved? In trying to answer this question, we come to the conclusion that improvement in the task of learning or memorizing demands the necessary improvements in:
(i) the techniques and methods of Jearning. (ii) the learning situations and environment. (iii) the learner’s state of mind
Improvement in all these aspects demands a lot of seriousness on the part of a learner. The following suggestions can prove helpful in this direction:
I. Will to learn: There must be firm determination or strong will to learn in order to achieve success. Where there is a will there is a way. Materials read, heard or seen without the mood to concentrate are difficult to remember later on.
2. Interest and attention: Interest as well as close attention are essential for effective learning and memorization. One who has no interest in what one learns, cannot give due attention to it and consequently will not be able to Jearn it. Mr. Bhatia emphasizes this fact in the following words:
“Interest is the mother of attention and attention is the mother of memory; if you would secure memory. vou must first catch the mother and the grandmother.” (1964. p. 194)
Therefore, every care should be taken to create the desired interest in material by making its purpose clear and linking it with one’s natural instincts and urges. Again all the factors causing distraction should be reduced to a minimum so that full attention can be paid to the material in hand.
3. Adopting proper methods of memorization: There are So many economical methods of memorization but all are not suitable on all occasions for all individuals. Therefore a judicious selection should be made in choosing a particular method in a given situation.
4. To follow principle of Association: It is always good to follow the principle of association in learning. A thing should never be learnt ina complete water-tight compartment. Attempts should be made to connect it with one’s previous learning on the one hand and with so many related things on the other. Sometimes for association of ideas special techniques and devices are used that facilitate learning and recall. The letter VIBGYOR has proved an effective aid in remembering the colours of the spectrum. In a similar way many associations may be formed and material to be learned can be easily remembered.
5. Grouping and Rhythm: Grouping and Rhythm also facilitate learning and help in remembering. For example a telephone no. 567345234 can be easily memorized and recalled if we try ta group it as 567 345 234.
Similarly, rhythm also proves as an aid in learning and memorizing. Children learn effectively the multiplication tables in the sing song fashion. The arrangement of the material in the form of a verse with rhythm and rhyme is found very useful in this direction. As an illustration the following verse is worth quoting:
Thirty days has September, April, June, and November, All the rest have thirty-one, Excepting February alone,
To which they twenty-eight assign, Till leap year gives it twenty-nine.
6. Utilizing as many senses as possible: Senses are said to be the gateways of knowledge and it has also been found that things are better learned and remembered when presented through more than one of the senses. Therefore attempts should be made to take the help of audio-visual aid material and receive impressions through as many Senses as possible.
7. Arranging better learning situations: Environmental factors also effect the learning process. Therefore, due care should be taken to arrange better learning situation and environment. A calm and quiet atmosphere and stimulating environment proves effective when learning.
8. Internal factors within the learner: Besides the external factors there are the things within the learner which affects his learning and reproduction. His physical and mental health and environmental state of his mind atthe time of learning as well as reproduction counts a Jot to improve his memory. Therefore, due attention should be given to the improvement of student’s health-physical as well as mental. Their emotions should also be trained and emotional tensions should be removed as far as possible.
9. Provision for change and proper rest: Adequate provision for change of work, rest and sleep should be made as it helps in remove ing fatigue and monotony. A fresh mind is necessarily able to learn more and retain it for a long time than a tired and dull one.
10. Repetition and Practice: Last but not least is the repetition and continuous practice which adds to effective memorization. An intelligent repetition with full understanding always helps in making learning effective and enduring. The things repeated and practised frequently are remembered for a long time. Therefore due care should be taken for drill work, practice and review etc., in the process of memorization and learning.
What is forgetting?
As a matter of lame-excuse we often hear the comments “Excuse me. I have really forgotten it.” A student complains and repents over forgetting the material he remembered. A house-wife feels ashamed of her forgetting when she forgets to add salt in the vegetable cooked. Therefore, in general, the term forgetting seems to be a part Of our day-to-day speech. But in order to be more specific and scientific in our approach, let us study’ some of the definitions given by eminent writers-
I. Munn. ‘Forgetting is the loss, permanent or temporary, of the ability to recall or recognize something learned earlier.” (1967 p. 425).
2. Drever. “Forgetting means failure at any time to recall an experience, when attempting to do so, or to pertorim an action previously learned.’’4 1952, p. 99).
3. Bhatia. “‘Forgetting is the failure of the individual to revive in consciousness 2n tea or group af ideas without the help of the Original stimulus.” (1968, p. 203).
In all these definitions, forgetting is termed as failure. Let us see how it affects the failure of an individual.
The power of long retention and rapid reproduction (recall and recognition) makes a good memory. It counts towards the success of an individual in the task of learning or memorizing. Forgetting on the other hand, counts towards the’ failure. ‘I have forgotten implies that I have failed to retain or to be able to recall what was learned or experienced by me earlier.’ In ‘this way forgetting is just the opposite side of remembering and essentially a failure in the ability of reproducing.
Ebbinghaus’s curve of forgetting.
The studies made by the psychologist Ebbinghaus (1885) present the earliest systematic work in studying the phenomenon of forgetting. He himself worked as a subject for the studies and described his results by sketching a curve of forgetting.
What he did was memorize a list of his nonsense syllables and then test himself at intervals from 20 minutes to a month to see how much of the list he remembered. The results in terms of the percentage of material forgotten with the lapse’ of time were found in the following order:
Time elapsed
Amount forgotten
20 minutes
47%
One day
66%
2 days
72%
6 days
75%
31 days
79%
The curve obtained on the graph paper by plotting the amount forgotten asa function of time was named by him as curve of for gettirg. Through his experimental data and the presentation in the form if the above curve of forgetting, Ebbinghaus concluded that:
(i) amount of learnt material forgotten depends upon the time lapsed after learning, and
(ii) the rate of forgetting is very rapid at first and then gradually diminishes proportionately as the interval lengthens.
Types of forgetting
There are certain types of forgetting and these may be described in a number of ways based on its nature and functioning. In one way, it is classified as Natural and Morbid forgetting. In Natural forgetting, forgetting occurs with the lapse of time in a quite normal way without any intention of forgetting on the part of the individual whereas in Morbid or abnormal forgetting one deliberately tries to forget something. This type of forgetfulness, as Freud explains, results from repression and is wishful as one happens to forget the things which he does not wish to remember.
According to some other view, forgetting may be classified as general or specific. In general forgetfulness one suffers a total loss in one’s recalling some previous learning while in specific forgetfulness the individual forgets only one or the other specific part of bis earlier learning.
Still another view related to the cause of occurring, classifies forgetfulness as physical or psychological. In case one loses his memory on account of the factors of age, diseases, biological mal-functioning of the braia and nervous system, accidents, consumption of liquor or other intoxicating materials, etc., it is said to be physical or organic forgetting. But, in case, loss of memory occurs due to psychological factors like stress, anxiety, conflicts, temper provocation, lack of interest, aversion, apathy, repression or similar other emotional and psychic difficulties, the resulting forgetfulness is termed as psychological.
Theories of forgetting
As to the nature and types of forgetting, it occurs universally, to a lesser or greater extent, with all human beings. How and why it does happen, has been a subject of extensive research and investigation resulting in a number of theories. Some of the main theories are described below in brief.
The trace decay theory: According to many psychologists, time is the cause of much forgetting. What is learnt or experienced is forgotten with the lapse of time. The cause of such natural forgetting can be explained through a process known as decay of the memory trace. It says that learning results in neurological changes leaving certain types of memory traces or engrams in the brain. With the passage of time through disuse, these memory traces of learning impressions get weaker and weaker and finally fade away. It leads us to conclude that the older an experience, the weaker its memory and as time passes, the amount of forgetting goes on increasing.
The experimental results as well as day-to-day functioning in the field of learning and remembering have come in the way of the validity of the above mentioned trace decay theory. Thus the theory has proved a failure in many instances of forgetting in long-term memory such as learning to ride a bicycle where forgetting does not occur even after years of neglect. Similarly, the trace decay theory through its disuse mechanism has proved a failure in explaining morbid or abnormal forgetting. However, this theory has provided good results in explaining forgetfulness in the case of short-term memory. Drill, practice, rehearsal or repetition of a learning always results in preventing decay. The reverse is also true as reading a poem one, for example, without repeating it or thinking about it, is likely to result in the death of his memory trace before coding in long-term memory can occur.
The interference theory: The second major theory of forgetting holds the mechanism of interference responsible for forgetting. Interference is caused on account of the negative inhibiting effects of one learning experience on another. We forget things because of such interference. The interfering effects of things previously learnt and retained in our memory with the things of our recent memory can work both ways, backward and forward. The psychological term used for these types of interference are retroactive inhibition and proactive inhibition.
In Retroactive inhibition the acquisition of new learning works backward to impair the retention of the previously learned material. For example a second list of words, formulae or equation may impair the retention of a first list. Proactive inhibition is just the reverse of retroactive inhibition. Here the old learning or experiences retained in our memory works forward to disrupt the memory of what we acquire or learn afterwards. For example, one may experience great difficulty in learning a second language when vocabulary from the first interferes or learning a new formula may be hampered on account of the previously learned formulae in one’s memory.
In both types of the above inhibitions, it can be easily seen that similar experiences when they follow each other produce more interference than dissimilar experiences. Because in this case all experiences are so intermingled that a state of utter confusion prevails in the mind of an individual and consequently he faces a difficulty in retention and recall.
Interference, theory as a whole has been proved quite successful in providing adequate explanation for natural and normal forgetting for both the short-term and long term memory. However, for explaining the cases of abnormal or morbid forgetting we should search for some other explanation.
The Repression theory: The explanation for the abnormal or morbid forgetting may be given with the help of the repression theory as put forward by the Freud’s psychoanalytic school of psychology. Repression, according to this school, is a mental function that safeguards the mind from the impact of paintul experiences. As a result of this function we actually push the unpleasant and painful memories into the unconscious and thus try to avoid at least consciously the conflicts that bother us. This kind of forgetfulness ts well motivated and intentional. We usually intend to see ourselves and to some extent, the world around us as quite pleasant and reasonable. The memories that are in harmony with this view are acceptable to us, but those that oppose it are often blotted out and this explains why our forgetting like attention, is selective. Thus as a result of the repression we forget the things which we do not want to remember. We forget about our dearest relatives and friends who are dead and gone. We forget to attend a marriage party which we do not want to attend. Similarly, most of us tend to forget the names of the people we do not like. In such forgetting we can come across some serious mental cases. People under a heavy emotional shock are seen to forget n their names, homes, wives and children.
Apart from causing abnormal forgetting, an impaired emotional behaviour of an individual does also play its part in disrupting his normal memory process. For example a sudden rise of emotions in excess may completely block the process or recall. When one is taken over by emotions like fear, anger or love, one may forget all he has experienced. learned or thought before hand. During these emotions
one becomes so self-conscious that his thinking is paralysed. That is why a child fails to recal! the answer toa question in the presence of a teacher whom he fears very much. Similarly, many of us cannot do well before the interview board or in an examination due to interview or test phobia. An actor, orator or musician may also fail miserably in his performance on the stage as he becomes panicky and forgets his prepared dialogue, speech or art.
SUMMARY
Memory refers toa special ability of our mind to conserve or retain what has been previously experienced or acquired through learning and then at some later stage to enable us to make use of it by its reproduction or revival (in the form of recall or recognition).
Human memory can be classified into certain types like immediate memory, shor-term memory and long-term memory. Immediate memory or sensory memory helps an individual to recall something a split second after having perceived it. It has an extremely brief retention time (i.e. trom a fraction of a second to severa] seconds). Short term memory is also temporary, though not nearly as short lived as immediate memory. Here the time of retention may endure upto thirty seconds and may so be further increased through rehearsal. Long-term memory, unlike short-term memory, has a seemingly limitless capacity to store information, undergoes little or no decay, and requires little if any rehearsal. It is also able to code information according to meaning, pattern and other characteristics.
For performing experiments to study memory one needs the use of simple verbal materials in the form of serial list, paired associate list and connected discourse. For the visual presentation of memorizing verbal material an apparatus named memory drum is generally employed in laboratories. The material can be exhibited through the window-like opening df the drum to be operated systematically. Memory—good or bad—can be inferred through the amount actually retained by the learner which in turn can be directly measured through some tests of recognition and recall. Special methods like learning and saving methods devised by Ebbinghaus may also be used for this purpose.
Economy in memorizing may be achieved by utilising proper methods of memorization like recitation method in place of ccntinued re-reading of the same material. Similarly, one has to make a judicious choice out of the whole v/s part methods and distributed v/s massed practice methods.
Training in memory aims to achieve a good memory. We can bring improvement in our recall process by freeing ourselves from harmful emotional factors, build our self-confidence and make use of different associations with a cool and patient mind. Moreover, proper memorization always results in long retention and easy reproduction. Therefore, the factors like learner’s will, his interest and attention,
learning methods, utilization of the principle of association, grouping and rhythm, suitable learning environment, repetition and practice, emotional and mental state of the learner, etc., always need to be attended carefully for getting better results of the process of memorization.
Forgetting is the temporary or long-term loss in our ability to reproduce the things that have been previously learned. Depending upon its nature and intensity, it may be classified as natural and morbid (abnormal), general and specific, physical and psychological.
The psychologist Ebbinghaus is known to be the first man to do an experimental study of forgetting. He put the results of his study on the graph paper by plotting the amount forgotten as a function of
time elapsed. The curve so obtained was named as “‘curve of forgetting’’.
Natural forgetting can be properly cxplained through the theory of Trace decay which holds that we forget on account of decay of the memory traces with the lapse of time.
The repression theory is held better in explaining morbid forgetting. According to this theory, we forget the thing, we do not want to remember by pressing them in our unconscious mind.
The theory of interference is able to explain all types of forgetting. According to this theory, we forget things because of the interference of other things. Proactive inhibition occurs when earlier learning interferes with the Jater learning. Retro-active inhibition is the result of later learning coming in the way of earlier learning.
References and Suggested Readings
Adams, J.A., Learning and Memory: An Introduction, Homewood, Ulinois: Dorsey Press, 1976.
Bartlett, F.C., Remembering: A Study in Experimental and Social Psychology, New York: Cambridge, 1932.
Bhatia, H.R., Elements of Ecucational Psychology (3rd Indian reprint) Calcutta: Orient Longman, 1968.
Cermak, L.S., Human Memory—Research and Theory, New York: Ronald Press, 1972.
Collins. M and James, Drever (Ed.), Experimental Psychology, London: Methuen,
Deese, J. & Hulse, S.H., The Psychology of Learning (3rd ed.) New York: McGraw Hill, 1967 (Chapter 8—111).
Drever, James, A Dictionary of Psychology, Middlesex: Penguin Books, 952. Ebbinghaus, H , On Memory, New York: Dover, 1964,
Higbee, K.L., Your Memory: How it works and How to Improve it, Eaglewood Cliffs, New Jersey: Prentice-Hall, 1977.
Hunter, lan M.R., Memory, London: Penguin Books, 1964.
Klatsky, R.L., Human Memory, San Francisco: Freeman, 1976. Levin. M.., Psychology A Biographical Approach, New York: McGraw-Hill,
Morgan, J.B.. and Gilliland, A.R., Aa Introducti ; Macmillan, 1942. roduction to Psychology, New York:
Mung N.L.. An Introduction to Psychology (2nd Ed.) Delhi: Oxford & IBH,
Ryburn, W.M., Introduction to Educational Psychology (Reprint . University Press, 1956. vchology (Reprint) London: Oxferd
Skinner, B.F., Verbal Behaviour, New York: Appleton Century, Crofts, 1957.
Stout, G.E., A Manual of Psychology, London: University Tutorial Press, 1938.
Wickelgren, W.A., Learning and Memory, Engl ; . Prentice-Hall, 1977. J emory, Englewood Cliffs, New Jersey:
Woodworth, R.S., and Marquis, D.G., P. . . Holt, 1948. qui sychology (5th ed.) New York: Henry
Chapter 14
INTELLIGENCE
In our day to-day conversation we often comment that a parti‘cular child or individual is very intelligent or possesses more or less intelligence. Our all such comments are based on the observation of the performance or. behaviour of the individual concerned prefer ably in comparison with others of his own group. The question arises what makes an individual behave or perform so well or poorly. No doubt interest, attitude, desired knowledge skill and similar other attributes count toward such performance or behaviour but still there is something left that can weigh more. In psychology the term used is intelligence. In ancient India our great rishis named it Viveka.
Defining intelligence
Intelligence as a concept has been understood in different ways by the different psychologists and consequently there stands a wide variety of definitions. Let us start with the reproduction of a few.
Woodworth and Marquis: “‘Intelligence means intellect put to use. It is the use of intellectual abilities for handling a situation or accomplishing any task.”’ (1948, p. 33)
Stern: “‘Intelligence is a general capacity of an individual consciously to adjust his thinking to new requirements. It is general mental adaptability to new problems and conditions of life.”’ (1914, p. 3).
Terman: “‘An individual is intelligent in proportion as he is able to carry on abstract thinking.” (1921).
Wagnon: “Intelligence is the capacity to learn and adjust to relatively new and changing conditions.”’ (1937, p. 401).
Thorndike: Intelligence may be defined as “the power of good responses from the point of view of truth or fact.’’ (1914).
Apart from the above given definitions, more of such definitions can further be cited. All these definitions, when taken separately, give an incomplete picture because they partly emphasize that:
– intelligence is the ability to learn.
—it is the ability to deal with abstraction.
— it is the ability to make adjustment or to adapt to new situations.
—it is the ability or power of making appropriate responses ta certain stimuli in a given situation.
In view of the weaknesses of the existing definitions, David Wechsler, author of the adult intelligence test, tried to providea somewhat comprehensive definition of the term intelligence by saying that ““Intelligence is the aggregate or global capacity of an individual to act purposefully, to think rationally, and to deal effectively with his environment.”’ (1944, p. 3). In his further attempt Wechsler also provided a criterion for defining intelligent behaviour in terms of the four characteristics 1.e., intelligence involves awareness, it is goaldirected, it is rational, and it has value. Taking the cue from this. criterion Stoddard tried to define intelligence as “the ability to undertake activities that are difficult, complex and abstract and which are adaptive to a goal, and are done quickly and which have social value and which lead to the creation of something new and different.” (1943, p. 4).
However, both these so-called comprehensive definitions have also come under severe criticism due to difference of opinion among psychologists.
However, leaving aside the nature of the terminology and language used in defining intelligence, there seems to be some agreement among the psychologists as below:
—Intelligence must be understood as the mental capacity or mental energy available with an individual at a particular time in a particular situation.
—This mental capacity helps him in the task of theoretical as well as practical manipulation of the things, objects or events present in one’s environment in order to adapt or face new challenges and problems of life as successfully as possible.
—Judgment about one’s capacity or fund of mental energy available with him can only be considered in terms of the quality of his behaviour or performance.
Keeping in view all these basic factors, we may have some workable definition of the term intelligence as under:
Intelligence may be regarded as a sort of mental energy (in the form of mental or cognitive abilities) available with an individual to enable him to handle his environment in terms of adaptation and facing novel situations as effectively as possible.
Evaluating on the basis of the above workable definition we can call a person intelligent in proportion to his being able to use his mental energy in handling his actual life problems and leading a happy and well contented life.
Theories of intelligence
With the help of definitions, we are able to understand how intelligence operates—what type of behaviour of an individual makes him intelligent or unintelligent. But it does not explain what is the structure of intelligence or in other words, what are the different components or, elements of intelligence. The theories of intelligence propagated by psychologists from time to time have tried to answer this question. Below we examine some of these theories:
1. Unitary theory or monarchic theory. This theory, oldest in origin, holds the view that intelligence consists of one factor namely a fund of intellectual competence, which is universal for all the activities of the individual.
A man who has vigour can move as much to the east as to the west. In a similar way if one has a fund of intelligence he can utilize It to cover any area of his life and can be as successful in one area asin the other depending upon his fund of intelligence. But in actual life situations, the ideas propagated by this theory do not seem to fit well. We find that children who are bright in mathematics may, despite serious interest and hard work, not be so good in Civics. A student very good in conducting science experiments does not find himself equally competent in learning languages. This brings us to the conclusion that there is nothing like one single unitary factor in intelligence. Therefore the unitary theory stands rejected.
2. Anarchic theory or multifactor theory: The main propagator of this theory was E.L. Thorndike. As the name suggests, this theory, also named as atomistic theory of intelligence, considers intelligence a combination of numerous separate elements of factors, each one being a minute element of an ability. So there is no such thing as general intelligence (a single factor) but there are many highly independent specific abilities which go into different tasks.
In this way Monarchic and Anarchic theories hold two extremes. Just as We cannot assume good intelligence a guarantee of success in all the fields of human life so also we cannot say which certain specific type of abilities one will be entirely successful in a particular area and completely unsuccessful in another. Actually Gardner Murphy puts it, “there isa certain positive relationship between brightness in one field and brightness in another and so on.” (1968, p. 358). This brings us to the conclusion that there should be a common factor running through all tasks. The failure to explain such phenomenon gave birth to another theory named Spearman’s two factor theory.
3. Spearman’s two factor theory: This theory was advocated by Spearman. According to him every different intellectual activity involves a general factor ‘g’ which is shared with all intellectual activities and a specific factor ‘s’ which it shares with none. In this way, he suggested that there is something which might be called general intelligence—a sort of general mental energy, running,
through all different tasks but in addition to this general factor there are specific abilities, which make an individual able to deal with particular kinds of problems. For example, an individual’s performance in Hindi is partly due to his general intelligence and partly to some kind of specific ability in language which he might possess i.e. g+s1 Or in mathematics his performance will be due to g+s2; in drawing it will be due to g+s3 and so on and so forth. The factor g (in lesser or greater degree) will enter in all specific activities. The total ability or intelligence of such an individual (symbolized as A), thus, will be expressed by the following: g+s1 +s2 + s3+ ….=A
This two-factor theory of Spearman has been criticized on various grounds. The main reasons are given below:
(i) Spearman said that there are only two factors expressing intelligence but as we have seen above there are not only two but several factors (g, s1, s2, s3…. etc.).
(ii) According to Spearman each job requires some specific ability. This view was not proper as it implied that there was nothing common in the jobs except a general factor and professions such as those of nurses, compounders and doctors could not be put in a group. In fact the factors s1, s2, s3, so4….etc., are not mutually exclusive. They overlap and give birth to certain common factors.
This idea of overlapping and grouping consequently led to a new theory called Group Factor theory.
4. Group factor theory: For the factors not common to all of the intellectual abilities, but common to certain activities comprising a group, the term ‘group factor’ was suggested. Prominent among the propagators of this theory is L.L. Thurstone an American psychologist. While working on a test of primary mental abilities. he came to the conclusion that certain mental operations have in common a primary factor which gives them psychological and functional unity and which differentiates them from other mental oferations. These mental operations constitute a group factor. So there are a number of groups of mental abilities each of which has its own primary factor. Thurstone and his associates have differentiated nine such factors. They are.
(i) Verbal factor (V); concerns comprehension of verbal relations, words and ideas.
(ii) Spatial factor (S): involved in any task in which the subject . manipulates an object imaginatively in space.
(iii) Numerical factor (N): ability to do numerical calculations, rapidly and accurately.
(iv) Memory factor (M): involving the ability to memorize quickly.
(v) Word Fluency Factor (W): involved whenever the subject is asked to think of the isolated words at a rapid rate.
vi) Inductive reasoning factor (RI): ability to draw inferences on conclusions on the basis of specific instances.
(vii) Deductive reasoning factor (RD): ability to make use of generalized results.
(viii) Perceptual factor (P): ability to perceive objects accurately.
(ix) Problem-solving ability factor (PS): ability to solve problems with independent efforts.
The weakest link in the group factor theory was that it discarded the concept of common factor. [t did not take Thurstone very long to realise his mistake and to reveal a general factor in addition to group factors.
5. This theory was propagated by G.H. Thompson, a British psychologist. It assumes that the mind is made up of many independent bonds or elements. Any specific test-or school activity samples some of these bonds. It is possible that two or more tests sample and utilize some bonds, then a general common factor can be said to exist among them. It is also possible that some other tests sample different bonds, then the tests have nothing in common and each is specific.
The sampling theory seems to combine various theoretical viewpoints as:
(i) It appears to be similar to Thorndike’s multifactor theory except that he concedes to the practical usefulness of a concept like ‘g’.
(ii) At the same time Thompson seems to maintain that the concept of group factor (G) is of equal practical usefulness.
Vernon’s Hierarchical Theory: British psychologist P.E. Vernon
suggested a hierarchical structure for the organisation of one’s intelligence.
Consequently, as Vernon (1950) suggested we could think of mind as a kind of hierarchy where ‘G’ is the most prominent mental ability. (i.e. an overall factor measured through intelligence tests). Under ‘G’ we have two major group factors, called Ved and KM, representing two main types of mental abilities. Where the first major group factor, Ved, is concerned with the verbal numerical and educational abilities, the other major group factor KM is related with practical, mechanical, spatial and physical abilities. These two major factors can be divided into minor group factors and ultimateiy these minor factors may be further sub-divided into various specific factors related with minute specific mental abilities.
Guilford’s theory involving a model of intellect
J. P. Guilford and his associates while working in the psychological Jaboratory at the University of Southern California developed a model of intelligence on the basis of the factor analytical research studies conducted by them with the help of a number of intelligence tests. They arrived at the conclusion that every mental process or intellectual activity can be described in terms of three different basic dimensions or parameters known as Operations—the act of thinking; contents—the terms in which we think (such as words or symbols); and products—the ideas we come up with (Guilford, 1961).
Each of these parameters—operations, contents and productscan be further sub-divided into some specific factors or elements as described below:
I operations
Il contents
lll products
Evaluation E
Convergent thinking C
Divergent thinking D
Memory C
Cognition C
Figural factor (F) ( i.e. concrete material perceived through senses.
Symbolic (S) ( i.e. material in the form of sign and symbols
Semantic M (i.e. material in the form of verbal meaning or ideas)
Units U
Classes C
Relation R
System S
Transformation T
Implication I
The above classification in terms of the parameters and specific factors can be represented diagrammatically as given on the next article.
In this way, according to the model of intellect presented by Guilford, structure of human intelligence can be viewed in terms of the three basic parameters along with their divisions into specific number of factors. There could be 4x 5x 6=120 factors in all which may constitute the human intelligence. Each one of these factors has trigram symbol i.e., at least one factor from each category of the three parameters must be necessarily present in any specific intellectual activity or mental task.
Conclusion about theories of intelligence
Each of the above theories of intelligence tries to provide a Structure of intelligence in terms of its constituents or factors in its own way. The Unitary theory is right in claiming that intelligence in its functional form is always used as a whole in the form of a total fund of mental energy. However, for understanding what works inside one’s intelligence we must try to build an eclectic view by mcorporating the essence of all the workable theories of intelligence. Consequently, any intellectual activity or mental task may be adjudged to involve the factors given below. These factors could be arranged in hierarchical order as suggested by Vernon or in the form of some model as designed by Guilford.
(i) General factor g (common to all tasks) as advocated by Spearman in his two factor theory.
(ii) Group factor “G’ (common to the tasks belonging to a specific group) as advocated by Thurstone and others in the Group factor theory.
(iii) Specific factors s,, s2, etc. (Very specific to the task as advocated by Thorndike in his multifactor theory).
Nature of intelligence
The problem regarding the identification of the true nature of intelligence can be solved by taking into consideration the different aspects given below:
— Defining intelligence for the understanding of its meaning.
—Discussing vatious theories explaining its structure in terms of various Constitutes or factors.
—Describing various other aspects and characteristics related to intelligence and its functioning.
We have already covered the first two points, above in the present chapter, let us now concentrate briefly on the last point through the headings mentioned below:
The effect of heredity and environment on intelligence
The relative importance of nature and nurture has been investigated by different sociologists and psychologists. The conclusion of their studies reveals that intelligence is the product of heredity and environment. Both are necessary for the intellectual growth of an individual, and one cannot be considered more essential than the other.
Distribution of Intelligence: The distribution of intelligence is not uniform among the human beings. It resembles the distribution of health, wealth, beauty and similar otber characteristics. It is a normal distribution that is governed by a definite principle which states that the majority of the people are at the average, a few very bright and a few very dull.
Individual Difference in intelligence: There exists wide individual differences among individuals with regard to intelligence. Truly speaking, no one of us even the identical twins or the individuals nurtured almost in similar environments have equal amount of mental energy flowing inthem. The assessment of intelligence through various tests has given us enough ground to believe that not only the intelligence varies from individual to individual but in the same individual from age to age and Situation to situation.
Intelligence and Changes in age: As the child grows in age, so does the intelligence as shown by intelligence tests. Now the question arises—at what age does this increase cease? The age of cessation of mental growth varies from individual to individual. However in a majority of cases, intelligence reaches its maximum, somewhat at the age of 16 to 20 in the individual. After that the vertical growth of intelligence ceases. But the horizontal growth—accumulation of knowledge and acquisition of skills—continues throughout the lifespan of an iodividual.
Intelligence and Sex differences. Various studies have been conducted to find out whether women are less mtelligent than men and vice versa. The result of these researches hanes in one way or the other. In some of the cases no significant difference has been found. Therefore, it is proper to think that difference in sex does not ¢ontribute towards difference in intelligence,
Intelligence and racial or cultural differences: Whether a particular race, caste, or cultural group is superior to another in intelligencethe hypothesis has been examined by so many research workers. In the U.S A. it has been a burning problem for centuries. Tho results of earlier studies which take the Whites to be a superior race in comparison with the Negroes have been questioned. Now it has been established that intelligence is not the birthright of a particular race or group. The ‘bright’ and ‘dull’ can be found in any race, caste or cultural group and the differences which are found can be explained in terms of environmental influences.
Assessment of intelligence
We are familiar only with that intelligence of an individual which is manifested by him through an intelligence test or tests. Psychologists have devised so many such tests for the measurement of intelligence. However, the term assessment, is preferred to be used in place of measurement as measurement of intelligence is not possible im the same way as we use the term measurement in measuring a piece of cloth or temperature of our body. In is because. intelligence in all its meaning and application is not a thing, it is only an idea, an abstraction. Therefure, we can only have its assessment and not the measurement in physical terms. Moreover, in the case of measuring intelligence we cannot have such absolute scales as are otherwise available for measuring physical entities i.e., piece of cloth or temperature. Here as Griffiths observes “‘the standard of measurement is a group performance’”’ (1983, p. 138). Therefore, when we measure intelligence of an individual with the help of an intelligence test we try to interpret the resulting score in the light of the norms established (group performance) by the author of the test. In this way one’s intelligence is determined relatively to the classified group to which he belongs. So where in the case of a piece of cloth absolute measurement is possible, we have relative measurement in the case of intelligence measurement.
Classification of intelligence tests
1. As far as the administrative point of view is concerned the intelligence tests can be classified into two broad categories namely:
(A) Individual tests: In which only one individual is tested at a time.
(B) Group tests: Ia which a group of individuals is tested at the same time.
2. Another way of classifying the intelligence tests is based on the form of the test. Accordingly there are two types of tests:
(2.1) Verbal Test or Language tests
(2.2) Non-verbal tests or Non-Lauguage tests
(a) Verbal or Language tests: These tests make use of language. Here the instructions are given in words (either in written or oral form or both). Individuals are required to uSe language as well us paper and pencil for giving the responses. The test content is loaded with verbal material.
(b) Non-Verbal and Non-Language tests: These tests involve such activities in which the use of language is not necessary. The use of language is eliminated from test content and response except in giving directions.
The typical examples of such non-verbal tests are Performance Tests. The principal characteristics of these are given below:
(i) Test contents of these tests are in the form of material objects.
(ii) What an individual has to do is indicated by the tester either through oral instructions or by pantomime or signs,
(iti) Individual’s responses depend upon what he does or performs rather than by anything he says or writes.
(iv) Generally these tests are individual tests. As Dr. Pillai observes, “These cannot be used as group tests, chiefly because it is necessary to supervise the individual testee at work and give him necessary direction.”
If we try to have a final picture of all types of tests in intelligence we will have to keep in view both the ways of classifying them as mentioned above. All these types of intelligence tests can be represented diagrammatically as follows:
Intelligence test
1. Individual test
A. Verbal test
B. Performance test ( a typical form of nonverbal test)
2. Group test
A verbal test
B. Non-verbal test
Individual verbal tests
The tests involving the use of language and administered to an individual at a time belong to this category. As an example, of such tests we can quote Stanford-Binet Scale. It is the revised form of the original Binet-Simon test. Actually, French Psychologist, Alfred Binet is the father of intelligence tests construction movement. He, along with Theodore Simon prepared a test as early as in 1905, consisting of 30 items (arranged in order of increasing difficulty) graded for different levels. The.test included such items as:
At age 3 —Point out to nose, eyes and mouth. At age 7—Tell what is missing in the unfinished picture.
In 1931, the first American revision of this test was published by Terman at Standford University and in 1937 another revision was carried on with the help of Maud A. Merril. This as well as 1960’s revision is called the Stanford Binet Scale and widely used as an individual intelligence test.
The tests in this scale are grouped into age levels, extending from age 2 to 22 years. The tasks to be performed by the testee in these various tests range from simple manipulation to abstract reasoning.
Binet Tests have been adopted in India too. The first such attempt was made by Dr. C.H. Rice in 1922 when he published his “‘Hindustan: Binet Performance Point Scale’. This was an adaptation of the Binet test along with some performance tests in addition. The State Man ovigyan Shala of Uttar Pradesh has made a Hindi Version of Standford Binet test. This test is divided into several age-groups and named as Budhi Pariksha Anooshilan.
The other common Verbal Individual Intelligence test (used in India) is Samanya Budhi Pariksha (Pt. 1 and 2). This test is an Indian adaptation of the well known test of William Stephenson. It has been prepared by State Bureau of Educational and Vocational Guidance, Gwalior (M.P.)
Individual performance tests
As mentioned earlier, the complete non-verbal or non-language tests of intelligence for testing an individual one at a time come into this classification. In these tests the contents and responses are in the form of performance and language is not used at all. In these tests the items which require responses in terms of motor activities are included. Generally the activities, on which the performance of an individual is tested are of the following types:
(i) Block building or cube construction: Where the subject is asked to make a structure or design by means of blocks or cubes supplied to him. The examples of the tests, involving such type of activities are Merril Palmer Block Building, Koh’s Block Design Test, Alexander’s Pass-along test, etc.
(ii) To fit the blocks in the holes: Test material of such types provides numerous blocks and a board in which there are holes corresponding to these blocks. The subjéct has to fit the blocks in these corresponding holes (in the board). Examples are Seguin Form Board Test and Goddard Form Board Test.
(iii) Tracing a maze: Test material consists of a series of mazes of increasing difficulty, each printed on a separate sheet. The subject is required to trace with pencil, the path from entrance to exit. Porteus Maze Test is an example involving such type of activities.
(iv) Picture arrangement or picture completion. In picture arrangement tests the task is to arrange in series the given pictures whereas in picture completion test the subject is required to complete the picture with the help of given pieces cut out of each picture. ‘The Healy pictorial completion test is a good example of such test which provides a good estimate of the intelligence of the subject without making use of language.
As seen above, these tests try to lay stress on one or the other types of performance. Instead of using one or two tests a group of performance tests, organised either into a scale or battery, are used for a comprehensive picture of an individual’s mental ability. Some of the popularly known scales are:
(i) The Pinter Patterson Scale.
(ii) The Arthur Point Scale.
(iii) Alexander’s Battery of Performance Tests.
The Pinter Patterson Scale: This scale quite popular in U.S.A., was designed in 1917 mainly for use with deaf children and with linguistically backward children. It is quite a comprehensive scale which includes 15 sub-tests: Mare, Foal Picture Board, Seguin Form Board, the Five Figure Board, the Two Figure Board, the Casuist Board, the Triangle Test, the Diagonal Test, the Healy Form Board, Puzzle Test, Manikin Test, the Feature Profiletest, the Adaptation Board, and the Cube Test. The performance on this scale is timed and the marks are given for the performance which are added up and compared with the established norms given ip the manual to interpret the subject’s general intelligence.
The Arthur’s Point Scale: This scale has been developed by Madam Grace Arthur by adopting a point scale rather than the median mental age for the method of scoring. Its new revised version includes the following sub-tests:
(i) Know cubes.
(ii) Seguin Form Board.
(iii) Two Form Figure Board.
(iv) Casuist Form Board,
(v) Manikin,
(vi)Feature Profile,
(vii) Mare and Foal,
(viii) Heaty Picture Completion, and
(ix) Koh’s Block Design Test.
The Alexander’s Battery of Performance Tests: This scale has beon designed in Edinburgh University by W-P. Alexander. It consists of three tests—Passalong. Block designs and Cube construction, Passalong test consists of small coloured cubes, blue and red put in differing numbers in small wooden shallow boxes and the position of these cubes is to be reversed without lifting them from the boxes by removing them this way or that There are nine such patterns printed on cards and the subject is to manipulate the cubes within the space in the wooden box without lifting so that their position ts in reversed order i.e, if placed towards one side indicating blue colour, they have to be shifted to the opposite side indicated by red colour. The performance is evaluated in terms of the success in the task and the time taken.
The Koh’s Block design test, at present consists of 17 graded patterns which are printed on cards and there are coloured cubes mitching the colour of the patterns but the cubes are coloured half blue and half vellow, red or white. The subject is required to manipulate the cubes to match with the pattern one by one within the time limit to earn the maximum marks or to get deductions in the marks if the time limit is exceeded.
The cube construction test consists of 26 cubes, some coloured on three sides, some On two, some on one and only one on none. With the help of these cubes. the subject is required to make a square block consisting of nine cubes so that three sides are coloured and the top side is colourless. Similarly, there is another square block consisting of nine cubes in which alJ the sides are coloured but the top and the bottom are to be colourless and the third block consists of eight cubes of which all the four sides are colourless. The subject is to use his judgment to place the cubes at the right positions to construct the square blocks with the help of the cubes as quickly as possible and the scoring is done in terms of points in accordance with the time taken.
In India too, attempts for constructing such batteries have been made. Dr. Chander Mohan Bhatia’s work, in this regard, deserves special mention. He has developed a battery of performance tests known as ‘Bhatia’s Battery of Performance Tests’.
It contains the following five sub-tests:
(i) Koh’s Block Design Test.
(ii) Alexander’s Pass-along Test.
(iii) Pattern Drawing Test.
(iv) Immediate memory test for digits (with an alternative form suitable for illiterates).
(v) Picture construction test.
The last three tests in this battery have been constructed by Mr. Bhatia himself while the former two represent adaptation of the Scale available in Alexander’s Battery.
Wechsler Bellevue Intelligence Scale. This scale is available in two forms. The one form WISC is used for children and the other WAIS for adults. It is an individual test which has a unique quality of being named as verbal and performance scale simultaneously.
The scale consists of eleven sub-tests, Six sub-tests make up a verbal scale and five performance scale. These tests are listed below in the order in which they are administered.
Verbal Scale:
1. Test of General information.
2. Test of General comprehension.
3. Test of Arithmetic reasoning.
4. Test of distinction between similarities.
5. Test of Digit span.
6. Test of vocabulary.
Performance Scale:
7. Digit symbol Test.
8. Picture completion Test
9. Block Design test.
10. Picture arrangement test.
11. Object assembly test.
The scores on these sub-tests are added to give an idea of an incividual’s intelligence. .
The group verbal intelligence tests
The tests which necessitate the use of language and are applied to a group of individuals at a time come under this category. Some of the earlier tests belonging to this category are:
(i) Army Alpha Test (developed in World War I).
(ii) Army General Classification Test (developed in World War II),
Today we have so many group verbal tests. In India too, attempts have been made to construct such tests. Some of the popular tests of this nature are:
1. C. I. E. verbal Group Test of Intelligence (Hindi) constructed by Prof. Uday Shankar.
2. The Group Test of General Mental Ability (Samuhik Mansik Yogyata Pariksha) constructed by Dr. S. Jalota (Hindi).
3. Group test of intelligence, prepared by Bureau af Psychology, Allahabad (Hindi).
4. Prayag Metha’s Grouped [Intelligence Test (Samubik Budhi Pariksha, Hindi). This test has been published by Mansayan, Delhi,
5. General Mental Abilities Test, prepared by Dr. P.S. Hundal of Panjab University (Punjabi).
6. Group verbal intelligence test prepared by Dr. P. Gopala Pillai of the Kerala University (Malayalam).
7. Samuhik Budhi Pariksha (Hindi), prepared by Shri P.L. Shrimali, Vidya Bhavan G.S. Teachers College, Udaipur.
8. Samuhik Budhi Ki Jaanch (Hindi), prepared by Shri S.M. Mohsin, Educational and Vocational Guidance Bureau, Bihar, Patna.
The group non-verbal intelligence tests
These tests do not necessitate the use of language and are applicable to the group of individuals at a time.
The difference between performance tests (used for an individual) and non-verbal tests (used for a group) is up to a degree as far as their non-verbal nature is concerned. The performance tests require the manipulation of concrete objects or materials, supplied in the test, by the subject. Responses are purely motor in character and seldom require the use of paper and pencil by testee (except in a case like Maze Test etc.) Where the test material in the non-verbal tests. used for group testing, is provided in a booklet and requires the use of pencil by the testee.
Still in these tests, material does not contain words of numerical figures. It contains pictures, diagrams and geometrical figures etc., printed in a booklet. The subject is required to do such activities as to fill in some empty spaces, to draw some simple figures, to point out similarities and dissimilarities etc. In this way although the subject uses paper and pencil he does not need to know words or numerical figures. What he hasto do is explained clearly by the examiner usually through clear demonstrations so as to make tho Jeast possible use of language.
The examples of such type of tests are:
(i) Army Beta Test: It was developed in World War I? in U.S.A. for testing the intelligence of those soldiers who were either illiterates or were not used to English language.
(ii) Chicago Non-verbal Test: This non-verbal test has been proved most useful for the young children aged 12 and 13 years.
(iii) Raven’s Progressive Matrices Test: This test was developed in the U.K. Itis a very popular non-verbal group test -of intelligence. The test has been designed to evaluate the subjects’ ability:
(a) to see relationship between geometrical figures or designs.
(b) to perceive the structure of the design in order to select the appropriate part for completion of each pattern.
C.I.E. non-verbal group test of intelligence
Originally prepared by J.W. Jenkins, the test is printed by C.I.E. for adaptation into Hindi medium schools. The test contains such items as instructed below.
Below in the figure there are three designs on the left hand side which are similar, but on the right hand side there are five designs of which only one resembles the three designs given on the left hand side. Please underline that design.
Concept of mental age and I.Q.
Intelligence, assessed through the various intelligence tests, mentioned in the preceding pages, is always expressed in terms of I.Q. i.e. Intelligence Quotient. It was the German psychologist William Sterm who first initiated this term in the form of a ratio i.e. mental Age divided by Chronological Age or MA/CA, measure of the rate of mental development of Chronological Age an individual. To do away with the decimal point the ratio was again multiplied by 100 and thus the formula to calculate I.Q. was given as: I.Q.=MA/CAx100 (where MA stands for the mental age and CA for chronological age of the individual whose intelligence is being tested).
The concept of mental age was introduced earlier by a French psychologist Alfred Binnet. It was based upon the principle of the normal distribution of intelligence i.e., majority of the children of particular age are of normal intelligence and that they have a mental level approximating that age, which mental level could be termed as their ‘‘mental age’’, If some child excels in his performance of certain tasks from the performance of the majority of the children of his age, he is said to possess a higher mental age. If, for instance, a child of eight years has his performance on certain adequately determined tasks equa! to that of the majority of the ten-year-olds, then he had the mental age (MA) of 10 years, whereas, another child of eight years showing his performance equal to that of the majority of the 6-year-olds, on the same tasks could be said to possess the mental age of 6 years.
In any standard test of intelligence, there is a provision of a certain table which shows the conversion of actual scores obtained on the test into respective mental age (in months). What one has to do is only to read the mental age of his subject from this table on the basis of the scores earned by him on that test. This mental age divided by the chronological age in months (known from the identifying data) and multiplied by 100, then yields his intelligence in terms of I.Q.
The constancy of I.Q.
As mentioned earlier, intelligence goes on growing upto 16—20 years of age, but I.Q. for most individuals remains constant. Primarily I.Q. provides a ratio for knowing how bright an individual is as compared to some of his own age. Actually, it is an index which is independent not only of the particular score which an individual makes on a particular scale but also of the particular age at which he happens to make it. It is thus a measure which acquaints us with the relative brightness or intellectual possibilities of an individual, more or less permanently.
It is true that an individual grows in intelligence but the whole group (the other individuals of his own age) also grow at the same rate as that particular individual does. Thus I.Q., a measure of defining relative brightness or intellectual possibilities of an individual remains practically constant. Under ordinary circumstances accident or disease excepted) an individual’s I[.Q. is supposed to remain constant throughout life or at least throughout the age limits covered by the scale. This property of I.Q. is referred to as constancy of I.Q. by psychologists.
The classification of I.Q.
In accordance with the individual’s mental level as expressed in terms of I.Q. attempts have been made by different investigators to classify them under different categories. In the revised Standford edition of the Terman Merril test this classification has been presented as follows:
I.Q.
Category
Below 70
Mentally defectives
70 – 75
Borderline or Feeble minded
75 – 90
Dull and Backward
90 – 95
Low average
95 – 105
Average
105 – 125
Superior
125 – 140
Very superior
140 and above
Genius
However in Indian conditions, based on the Indian made intelligence tests or adaptations and found on the basis of researches in this area, the following classification seems to be more acceptable (Shanker Udai, 1984, p. 15)
I. Q.
Categories
0 – 25
Idiots
25 – 50
Imbeciles
50 – 75
Morons or Feeble minded
75 – 90
Borderline or dull
90 – 110
Average
110 – 125
Superior
125 – 140
Very Superior
140 and above
Genius
In the above classification, children having I.Q. range upto 90 and labelled as idiots, imbeciles, morons (Feeble minded) and dull (excepting a few borderline cases) are termed Mentally retarded children, while those possessing I.Q. 140 or more are termed genius or gifted. Judging in this way all the mentally retarded children essentially possess sub-normal intellectual capacities i.e., they are basically less capable of intelligent behaviour than normal! children.
Diagnosis of such sub-normal intellectual capacities is not a simple task. Intelligence testing alone does not suffice. For better results, the findings of these tests should be further supported on the basis of the observations of the following typical symptoms or characteristics found in such children.
1. They are dependent and find it difficult to manage themselves or their affairs. In some of them mental deficiency is so great that they are incapable of protecting themselves against common physical dangers. . In comparison with children of their own age their rate of intellectual development is too slow.
3. They find it difficult to shift from one type of activity to another and are not easily bored with a routine job. They are very poor at following general verbal instructions unless these are repeated at frequent intervals. They are essentially slow learners. Experimentally it has been proved they take longer to learn a skill. They are very poor at abstraction. They can only think in terms of concrete objects and situations. They lack too much in the power of observation, thinking and reasoning and ability to generalize.
8. The areas of their interest, aptitudes and choices are too limited.
9. Some of them have constitutional defects and in many cases physical symptoms give indications of their sub-normality One may have one’s lips fairly apart with tongue visible in between the teeth and saliva coming out. Another has vacant looks and clumsy gait. In other cases the children may possess usually large or small heads etc. But such types of symptoms may even be found in normal and bright children, therefore, they are not valid and reliable in labelling a child mentally deficient or retarded.
10. They are socially as well as emotionally maladjusted personalities. They do not quite realize their rights and obligations towards others and often have deficient moral judgment.
11. They are essentially tncurable in the sense that they cannot be endowed with more intelligence and made normal. Similarly, in the case of genius or gifted, the results of the intelligence tests in terms of I.Q. can provide a workable base for segregating the gifted from the averages. Further support may be provided by making use of the results of other related and useful tests and devices like aptitude tests, interest inventory, naturalistic observation, anecdotal records, opinions and reports of friends and teachers, self analysis, sociometric techniques and personality tests involving overall assessment of the behaviour.
SUMMARY
Intelligence may be understood as a sort of mental energy available to an individual to enable him to handle his environment in terms of adaptation and facing novel situations as effectively as possible.
The theories of intelligence try to throw light on the structure of intelligence. Unitary theory holds that intelligence consists of only one factor i.e., a fund of intellectual competence. Quite contrary to this, multi-factor theory considers intelligence a combination of numerous separate elements or factors, each being a minute element of an ability. Spearman’s two factor theory advocates that all the intellectual tasks can be categorized into certain definite groups. Each group has a unique common factor known as group factor. Thurstone and his associates had discovered nine of such group factors. Vernon’s hierarchical theory suggests a hierarchical structure for the organisation of intelligence in the shape of G, an overall factor branching into two major group factors and various specific factors. Guilford tried to illustrate his viewpoint through a model of intellect involving three interrelated and interacted basic parameters—operations, contents and products.
We may have a more comprehensive picture of the concept of intelligence by knowing certain important facts about its nature like intelligence is normally distributed in nature it is a joint product of both heredity and environment; it grows with age and is vertical growth ceases at the age of 16 to 20, it shows vide variety of individual differences but however the differences in sex, races, culture, caste and colours etc., are not found to be a factor in causing differences in intelligence.
Intelligence cannot be measured in the same way as we measure a piece of cloth or temperature of our body. It can only be assessed. This assessment is carried out through intelligence tests categorized as individual and group tests involving the use of verbal or non-verbal material. In individual tests, we test an individual at a time where in group tests, a group of individuals may be tested at the same time. We have a large variety of such individual or group tests, some of which are paper pencil tests and thus require the essential use of language, the others are language free tests. The typical examples of such nonJanguage tests are performance tests. In such tests an assessment of one’s intelligence is made through the evaluation of his performance on some tests involving intellectual abilities. These tests are most useful in the cases of individuals who have language handicaps such as foreign language speaking groups, illiterates, deaf and dumb, mentally retarded or culturally deprived individuals.
For interpreting the scores earned on intelligence tests we make use of the concept of mental age and l.Q. Mental age of a child signifies a particular mental level which is normal for the majority of children of his age. In a standardized test of intelligence, we can read the mental age of an individual (in months) directly from the table provided in the manual on the basis of the score earned by him on that test and then we can compute I.Q. by using the formula IQ=mental age / chronological Age x 100. This ratio a measure of defining relative brightness or intellectual possibilities of an individual remains practically constant throughout one’s life or at least throughout the age limits covered by an intelligence test. This property of I.Q. is referred to as Constancy of I.Q.
The I.Q. Scores of individuals may be employed in classifying them as above average, average and below average. The individuals haviog I.Q. range upto 90 i.e. having below average intellectual abilities are termed as mentally retarded while those having I.Q. 140 or above are termed genius or gifted.
References and Suggested Readings
Binet, A and Simon, T, The Development of Intelligence in Children, Baltimore: Williams & Wilkins, 1916.
Brody, E.B. and Brody, N., Intelligence: Nature, Determinants and Consequence, New York: Academic Press, 1976.
Bureher H.3., Human IntelligenceNature and Assessment, London: Methuen,
Cc ronbach tye Essentials of Psychology Testing (31rd ed.) New York: Harper & ow, .
Drever, Jand Collins, M., The Performance Tests of Intelligence Edinburgh: Oliver & Boyd, 1948. 4 f gene
Griffith, J.H_ , The Psychology of Human Behavior, London, George Allen, 1933. Guilford, J.P., The Nature of Intelligence, New York: Mc Graw-Hill, 1967.
Pillai, N.P.. Pillai. K.S. and Nair, K.S., Psychological Foundations of Education, Trivandrum: Kalaniketon, 1972.
Shankar, Udai, Exceptional Children, (2nd ed.), Delhi: Sterling 1984.
Spearman, C.E., The Nature of Intelligence and Principles of Cognition, London: armillan 19792.
Spearman, C.E., The Abilities of Man, New York: Macmillan, 1927,
Stern, W., Psychological Methods of Testing Intelligence,. Baltimore : Warwick and York. Inc. 1914.
Stoddard, G:D., The Meaning of Intelligence, New York: Macmillan, 1943.
Terman, L.M. and Macmill, M.A., Measuring Intelligence, Boston: Houghtoa Mifflin, 1937.
Thomson, G.H., The Factorial Analysis of Human Ability, London: London University Press, 1939.
Thorndike, E.L., Fducartional Psychology (Briefer Course) New York: Columbia University, 1914.
Thurston, L.L., Primary Mental Abilities, Chicago: University of Chicago Press,, 1938.
Vernon, P.E., The Structure of Human Abilities, Lendon: Methuer, 1950.
Wagnon, M.J. (Ed.): Readings in Educational Psychology, New York: Houghtog Mifflin, 1937.
Wechsler, D., Wechsler Scale of Intelligence (WAIS, WISE). New York: Psychologica) Corporation, 1939.
Wechsler, D.. The Measurement of Adult Intelligence (rd ed.) New Yorks Williams and Wilkins, 1944.
Wolfie. D (Ed), The Discovery of Talent, Cambridge, Masa> Harvard University Press, 1969.
Woodworth, R.S., Psychology~A Study of Life, New York: Century, 1932.
Woodworth. R.S. and Marquis, ‘D.G.; Psycholegy (Sth ed.), New York: Henrys Holt & Ca. 1948,
Chapter 15
APTITUDES
Meaning and nature of aptitudes
It isan observable fact that people differ from one another and within themselves in their performance in one or the other fields of human activity such as leadership, music, art, mechanical work, teaching etc. Ramesh goes to a commercial institute in order to learn typing and shorthand. He progresses rapidly with his typing and shorthand and gets the diploma in due course. Later on, when he is Offered a stenographer-cum-typist job he carries it out satisfactorily. Suresh although not in any way inferior to the former in general intelligence, who also gets admission to this institute, progresses very slowly and even after getting the diploma proves himself an inefficient typist as well as stenographer. Similarly Radha profits from musical training while Sunita having almost the same intelligence as Radha under similar circumstances, makes little or no progress.
In this way in many spheres of every day life we usually come across individuals who under similar circumstances surpass other persons in acquiring certain knowledge or skills and prove themselves more suitable and efficient in certain specific jobs. Such persons are said to possess certain specific abilities or aptitudes, besides general intellectual abilities or intelligence, which help them in achieving success in some specific occupations or activities.
Therefore in a simple way aptitude may be considered a special ability or specific capacity besides the general intellectualability which helps an individual to acquire a required degree of proficiency or achievement in a specific field. However, for having a clear underStanding of the term aptitude let us try to consider the following definitions given by different scholars:
Bingham: “Aptitude refers to those qualities characterizing a person’s way of behaviour which serve to indicate how well he can learn to meet and solve certain specified kinds of problems” (1937, p. 21).
Traxler: ‘‘Aptitude is a condition, a quality or a set of qualities in an individual which is indicative of the probable extent to which he will be able to acquire under suitable training, some knowledge, skill or composite of knowledge, understanding and skill, such as ability to contribute to art or music, mechanical ability; mathematical ability or ability to read and speak a foreign language. (1957, p. 49).
Freeman. ‘‘An aptitude is a combination of characteristics indicative of an individual’s capacity to acquire (with training) some specific knowledge, skill. or set of organized responses, such as the ability to speak a language, to become a musician, to do mechanical work.”’ (1971, p431).
All these definitions reveal the predictive nature of aptitudes, When we say that Ram or Radha has an aptitude for teaching we
mean that he or she has the capacity or ability to acquire proficiency in teaching under anoropriate conditions.
Similarly when we say Mohan has an aptitude for music we mean that his present condition or ability reveals that if he were to learn music he would succeed in this line. In this way the knowledge of aptitude helps us in predicting the future success of an individual. Under suitable training or experiences, in a particular area of activity.
Something more about the nature of aptitudes
Are Aptitudes inherited or acquired? Like so many other personality traits or characteristics, it is difficult to say for one or the other aptitude that itis an absolute product of heredity or environment. Certain aspects of many aptitudes may be inborn. For example a person showine musical aptitude may have a musical throat and a person showing aptutude for typing work or watch repairing may have long and dexterous hands. But this is one side of the picture. It is also equally possible that the person’s aptitude for music may be the result of his living in the company of good musicians of his aptitude for typing work may be the creation of his father or mother who happens to be a typist.
Therefore, it is safer to conclude that the aptitude of an individual at a particular moment is, in all probability, dependent upon both, heredity and environment.
How aptitude differs from ability and achievement .
Aptitude and present ability do not mean the same thing. You may have no present ability to drive a car but you may have a high aptitude for driving—which means that your chances of being a successful driver are good provided you receive the proper training. In this way while aptitude has future reference and tries to predict the degree of attainment or success of an individual in an area or activity after adequate training—the ability concerns itself onlv with the present condition—the potentiality or capability possessed at the present moment irrespective of its past and does not try to make any estimate of one’s future success or failure,
Contrary to the forward-looking nature of aptitude and presentoriented characteristic of ability, achievement is past-oriented. It looks to the past and indicates what an individual has learned or acquired in a particular field.
But by this differentiation it should not be concluded that we can measure an individual’s future accomplishment in any area of activity with the help of aptitude measurement. Aptitude tests, in all their forms, measure only the present ability or capacity of an individual which can be exploited for making predictions about future attainments.
Difference between intelligence and aptitudes
Intelligence tests as they exist usually test the general mental ability of an individual; but aptitudes as we have discussed, are concerned with specific abilities. Therefore, where with the knowledge of intelligence of an individual we can predict his success in a number of situations involving mental function or activity, the knowledge of aptitudes, on the other hand, acquaints us with those specific abilities and capacities of an individual which give an indication of his ability or capacity to succeed in a special field or activity. Therefore, in predicting achievement in some particular job, training, courses or specialized instruction we need to know more about one’s aptitudes (specific abilities) rather than his intelligence or general ability.
Difference between aptitude and interest
To get desirable success in a given activity, a person must have both an aptitude for activity and an interest in it. Therefore, usually, interest and aptitude go hand in hand. But by this co-ordination, we should never infer that interests and aptitudes are one and the same thing. A person may be interested ina particular activity, job or training but may or may not have the aptitude for that. In such cases, the interest shown in a particular occupation or course of study is often the result of some other temptation or persuasion like ambitions of the parents, probably of getting an appointment or job provision of stipend or financial help, the prestige associated with the work—rather than the personal aptitude. Similarly a person may have long and dexterous fingers and can show a good performance on a mechanical aptitude test yet he may show little or no interest in becoming a watch maker. Therefore a guidance or section programme must give due weightage to the measure of aptitude as well as of interest. Both are essential for the prediction of the success of an individual in a given activity, job or course of instruction.
Measurement of aptitudes
Like intelligence tests various aptitude tests have been devised to measure aptitudes of the individuals in various specific fields or activities. Generally these tests can be classified into the following types according to the specific nature of the aptitude tested by them:
1. Mechanical Aptitude tests.
2. Musical Aptitude tests.
3. Art judgement tests.
4. Professional Aptitudes tests i.e., Tests to measure the aptitudes for professions like teaching. clerical, medical, legal, engineering, salesmanship, research work etc.
5. Scholastic aptitude tests i.e., tests to measure the aptitude for different courses of instruction.
In the following pages we will throw light on some of these above mentioned aptitude tests.
Mechanical aptitude tests
Like intelligence, mechanical aptitude is also made up of many components. While explaining its meaning Freeman writes:
‘‘The capacity designed by the term ‘mechanical aptitude’ is not a single, unitary function. It is a combination of sensory and motor capacities plus perception of spatial relations, the capacity to acquire information about mechanical matters and the capacity to comprehend mechanical relationships. (1977, p. 444).
Therefore mechanical aptitude tests try to test the above mentioned abilities and capacitics of an individual in order to know his mechanical aptitude. Some of the well known mechanical aptitude tests are:
1. Minnesota Mechanical Assembiy Test.
2. Minnesota Spatial Relations Test,
3. The Revised Minnesota Power Form Board (1948).
4. Stenquist Mechanical Aptitude Tests (Part I and III).
5.. L.J. O’Rourke’s Mechanical Aptitude Tests (Part I and II)
6. Bennet Tests of Mechanical comprehension.
7. S.R.A. Mechanical aptitude test.
8. A Battery of Mechanical Aptitude Tests (Hindi) prepared by Mano-Vigyanshala, Allahabad. Usually these tests contain the items of the following nature:
A. Asking the subject to put together the parts of mechanical devices.
B. Asking to replace cut-outs of various shapes in their correct holes in the board.
(c) Requiring the ability to solve problems in geometric terms.
(d) Asking questions concerning the basic information about tools and their uses.
(e) Questions relating to the comprehension of physical and mechanical principles.
As an illustration Bennet Mechanical comprehension test Form AA has 60 items in pictorial form. They present mechanical problems arranged in a difficult order and involve comprehension of mechanical principles found in ordinary situations. Two items of this test are presented below for illustration.
Clerical aptitude tests
Like mechanical, clerical aptitude is also a composite function. According to Bingham, it involves several specific abilities like:
(a) Perceptual ability: Ability to perceive werds end numbers with speed and accuracy.
(b) Intellectual ability: Ability to grasp the meaning of words and symbols.
(c) Motor ability: Ability to use various types of machines and tools like typewriter, duplicator, cyclostyle machine; punching machine etc.
Some of the popular clerical. aptitude tests are:
(i) Detroit Clerical Aptitude Examination.
(ii) Minnesota vocational test for clerical workers.
(iii) The Clerical Ability Test prepared by the dept. of psychology b University of Mysore, Mysore.
(iv) Clerical Aptitude Test Battery (English and Hindi), Bureau of Edu. and Voc. Guidance, Patna (Bihar).
(v) Test of Clerical Aptitude prepared by “the Parsee Panchayat ’ Guidance Bureau 209, Hornby Road, Bombay—1.
Specimen item from a Clerical aptitude test. Samples done correctly of pairs of numbers. 79542 79524
5194367 5794367
Samples done correctly of pairs of names.
John C Linder
John C. Lender
Investors Syndicate
Investors Syndicate
Now try the samples below,
66273894 — 66273284
527384578 —527384578
New York World—New York World Cargil Grain Co—Cargil Grain Co.
This is a Test for speed and accuracy. Work as far as you can without making mistakes.
Do not turn the page until you are told to begin. (Reproduced from General Psychology by H.E, Garrett, 1968, p. 477).
Musical aptitude tests
These tests have been devised for discovering musical talent. One of these important musical aptitude tests is described below:
Seashore Measure of Musical Talent:
It gives consideration to the following musical components:
(a) discrimination of pitch.
(b) discriminaticn of intensity of loudness.
(c) determination of time interval.
(d) Discrimination of timbre.
(e) Judgement of rhythm.
(f) Tonal memory.
Test items in this battery are presented on phonograph records. The subject sits, listens and attempts to discriminate. He is required to mark his responses on an answer form supplied to him by the examiner. The instructions in these tests are of the following nature:
“You will hear two tones which differ in pitch. You are to judge whether the second is higher or lower than the first. If the second is higher, record H: if lower, record L.”
Aptitude for grahpic art
These tests are devised to discover the talent for graphic art. The two important tests of this nature are:
1. The Meier Art Judgement Test.
2. Horne Art Aptitude Inventory.
In Meier Art Judgement Test there are 100 pairs of representational pictures in black and white. The one such pair is given below for illustration.
One member of each pair is an acknowledged art masterpiece while the other is a slight distortion of the masterpiece. It is usually altered from the original so as to violate some important principle of art. Testees are informed regarding which aspect has been altered and are asked to choose from each pair the one that is better more pleasing, more artistic, more satisfying. For example in the above given illustration, the examinees are required to select the original and aesthetically superior work on the basis of the shapes of the bowls. The number of correct responses is taken as a measure or aptitude for graphic art.
Another important test of measuring aptitude for graphic art is the Horn Art Aptitude Inventory. It requires the subject to produce sketches from given patterns of lines and figures. The created sketches of the subject are then evaluated according to the standard given by the author of this test.
Tests of scholastic and professional aptitudes
For helping in the proper selection of students for the studies of specific courses of professions like Engineering, Medicine, Law, Business Management, Teaching etc., the various specific aptitude tests have been designed. Some of these aptitude tests are:
(i) Stanford Scientific Aptitude Test by D.L. Zyve.
(ii) Science Aptitude Test (after Higher Sec. Stage): N.L.E. Delhi.
(iii) Moss Scholastic Aptitude Test for Medical Students.
(iv) Ferguson and Stoddard’s Law Aptitude Examination.
(v) Tale Legal Aptitude Test.
(vi) Pre-Engineering Ability Test.
(Education Testing Service, U.S.A.).
(vii) Minnesota Engineering Analogical Test. (viii) Coxe-Orleans Prognosis Test of Teaching Ability.
(ix) Teaching Aptitude Test by Jat Parkash and R.P. Shrivastav, University of Saugar (M.P.)
(x) Shah’s Teaching Aptitude test.
(xi) Teaching Aptitude Test by Moss, F.A. & others, George Washington University Press.
Contemporary trend in aptitude testing
Instead of utilising specific aptitude tests for measuring specific aptitude in very specific field or area, the trend at present, has now been changed towards multiple aptitude test battery to find the suitability of people for different professions requiring different abilities on the basis of scores in the relevant aptitude tests im the battery. The examples of such tests are General Aptitude Test Battery (GATB) and the Differential Aptitude Test (DAT),
GATB, developed by the Employment Service Bureau of USA, bas 12 tests. Eight of which aro paper-pencil tests as for name comparison, computation, yocabulary, arithmetic, reasoning, form matching, test matching, three dimensional space etc. The other four require the use of simple equipments in the shape of moving pegs on boards, assembling and dissembling rivets and washers. trom the scores obtained bythe subject, the experimenter is able to draw inferences about the nine aptitude factors: intelligence, verbal aptitude, numerical aptitude, spatial aptitude, form perception, Clerical perception, motor coordination, finger dexterity and manual dexterity. The GATB has proven to be one of the most successful multiple aptitude batteries particularly for the purposes of job Classification. ’
The DAT, developed by U.S. Psychological Corporation is available in two forms. It includes tests for verbal reasoning, numerical ability, abstract reasoning, spatial relations, mechanical reasoning, clerical speed and accuracy and two tests for language usages (for spelling and grammar,) DAT has proved more successful in predicting academic success and found specially useful for providing educational and vocational guidance to secondary school children.
Utility of aptitude tests
Aptitude tests have a wide area of application. Firstly, they are the backbone of the guidance services. The results of these tests enable us to locate, with a reasonable degree of certainty, the fields of activity in which an individual is most likely or least likely to be successful. Therefore these tests are found to be very useful in helping the youngsters as well as youth in the selection of special courses of instruction, fields of activities and vocations.
Secondly, they can be safely used for the purpose of educational and vocational selection. They help usin making scientific selection of the candidates for various educational and professional courses as well as for specialized jobs as Munn puts it. ‘‘The chief value of aptr tude testing is, in fact, that it enables us to pick out from those who do not yet have the ability to perform certain skills, those who, with 3 reasonable amount of training, will be most likely to acquire the skills in question and acquire them to a desirable level of proficiency.” (1967, p. 117).
Therefore aptitude tests properly anticipate the future potentialities or capacities of an individual (irrespective of the fact whether he possesses those future capacities before the training or not) and there’ by beip us in making selection of those individuals who are best fitted for a particular profession and course of instruction or those wbo are likely to be more benefited by the preprofessional training of experiences.
In this way any reasonable guidance and counselling programm? or the entrance examination to the specialized, academic and professional courses or the selection procedure for specialized jobs is required to give proper weightage to Aptitude testing. Aptitude testing when combined with the other information received through Interest Inventory, Personality tests, Intelligence tests and cumulative record etc., can help, to a greater extent, in avoiding the huge wastage of human as well as material resources by placing the individuals in their proper places and lines of work.
SUMMARY
Aptitude may be considered as a specific capacity or special ability, besides the general intellectual ability of an individual, indicative of his probable success in a relevant field after getting proper opportunity for learning or training. Like so many other personality traits, aptitudes have been adjudged as a joint product of both heredity and environment.
Aptitude differs from ability and achievement in terms of its forward looking nature i.e., predicting the future success of an individual where the ability limits itself in disclosing the present position of an individual] with regard to the possession of the particular ability or capacity, the achievement with its past oriented nature merely indicates what an individual has learned or acquired.
Aptitude should not be confused with interest. One may have interest in a particular act or job but may or may not have an aptitude for that. The converse is also true. However for obtaining the desired success In a given task, one must have both interest as well as aptitude.
Measurement of aptitudes is carried out through some relevant, specific aptitude tests. For example, Mechanical aptitude tests measure one’s aptitude for mechanical work; Clerical aptitude tests are employed for measuring aptitude for clerical work; Musical aptitude tests like Seashore measure of musical talent attempts to discover musical talent. Aptitude for graphic art is tested through the tests like Meier Art Judgement test. Similarly, we have various standardized aptitude tests forthe measurement of scholastic and professional aptitudes of individuals for relevant specific courses or professions like engineering, medicine law, business management, teaching, etc.
Aptitude tests have a wide range of application. They prove to be the backbone of all types of guidance services and selection programmes. Through their adequate prediction values, they exhibit their worth in placing the persons in their proper places and lines of work.
References and Suggested Readings
Anastasi, A., Psychological Testing. London: Macmillan, 1968.
Bennett, G.K., et al; Differential Aptitude Tests, New York: Psychological Corporation, 1947.
Bingham. W.V., Aptitudes and Aptitude Testing, New York: (Harper & Brothers 493i,
Freeman, F.S., Theory and Practice of Psychological Testing (3rd Indian reprint), Bombay: Oxford & IBH, 1971.
Hull, C.L., Apritedes Testing, New York: Yonkers, World Book Co, 1928,
Long, L and Mehta, P.H., The First Mental Measurement Hand Book of India, New Delhi: NCERT, 1966.
Meier, C.N.. Meier Art Tests Il Aesthetic Perception, JOWA, University of lowa, 1963.
Munn, N.L., Introduction to Psychology (indian Ed.) Delhi: Oxford & IBH, 1967.
Seashore, C.E., Seashore Measures of Musical Talents, New York: Psychological Corporation, 1960.
Traxler, A.E., Techniques of Guidance (Rev. ed.) New York: Harper & Brothers,
Chapter 16
PERSONALITY
Meaning and nature
The term “‘personality”’ stems from the Latin word persona, which was the name given to the masks actors wore and the characters they portrayed. The meaning of the word personality in practice has changed little since classical time for it is still quite common to hear the comments such as “I do not know what he sees in her, she has a very poor personality’, or “‘look at that young man, what a fine personality he has”. Remarks like this make us believe that personality is a thing or quality that is possessed by all of us and we can paste such labels as fine, good or poor on it on the basis of the physical makeup, manner of their’ walking, talking. dressing and a host of other similar characteristics possessed by individuals. However what is believed in this way is quite wrong as the psychological concept of personality goes far beyond and deeper than mere appearance or outward behaviour. How should it be given a proper meaning or definition has remained a serious problem from time immemorial before the psychologists.
Watson (1930) the father of behaviourism, taking clues from his behavioural studies, tried to conclude that ‘‘personality is the sum of activities that can be discovered by actual observations over a long enough period of time to give reliable information’’. In this way he tried to make the word personality synonymous to the consistent behaviour patterns of an individual. Indeed it reflected a very narrow meaning of the term personality.
In the subsequent years, Morton Prince tried to give personality a broad base by accepting the role of both environmental and hereditary factors in constituting what’ is named as personality. He remarked: “‘personality is the sum total of all the biological innate dispositions, impulses, tendencies. appetites and instincts of the individual and the dispositions and tendencies acquired by experience.”” (1929, p.532).
This defintion of Morton Prince was criticised on the grounds that it does not present any integrated and organisational view of personality. Personality cannot be described through merely summing up the various elements involved in one’s personality. If we do so it is not more than counting of bricks in describing a house.
The inability of various existing definitions to define personality In some proper way made Allport to engage in discovering some useful definition. After evaluating 49 such definitions, he arrived at the conclusion that “‘personality is a dynamic organisation within the individual of those psycho-physical systems that determine his unique adjustment to his environment” (1948, p. 48).
Although Allport tried to give a comprehensive definition of the term personality by recognizing the dynamic nature and organisational aspect of one’s personality and emphasizing the role it can play for making one adjusted to his environment, yet his definition suffered from some serious defects. In emphasizing the “dynamic organisation within the individual” he tried to view personality as something different from the individual as something residing inside the individual and not the integrated whole of mindbody relationship. Moreover by emphasizing merely on the theoretical aspect and describing it in terms of behaviouralior dynamic concept, the true nature of personality cannot be understood. The contemporary psychologists like R.B. Cattell and Eysenck are of such opinion. They feel very strongly that if personality cannot be demonstrated, measured and quantified it should be called philosophy or art and not personality theory in psychology. Below we reproduce their ideas in connection with the meaning of the term personality.
‘Personality is that which permits a prediction of what a person will do in a given situation.’ (Cattell, 1970, p. 386)
“‘Personality is the more or less stable and enduring organisation of a person’s character temperament, intellect and physique Which oh) his unique adjustment to the environment” (Eysenck, 1971, p. 2
By character Eysenck meant conative behaviour or will; physique meant bodily configuration and neuro-endocrine endowments, temperament stood for affective behaviour based on emotions and intellect implied the cognitive behaviour or intelligence.
The definition given by Eysenck has very strong points in its favour. First, it tries to provide personality a physiological base and gives a balanced consideration to the role of heredity and environment in building one’s personality. Second, it gives a complete picture of the human behaviour by involving all of its aspects—conative, cognitive and affective. Third, it stresses the need for integrating and organisation of the behavioural characteristics and last it aims at making personality somewhat measurable and assessable and thus gives it a scientific base. However, on the other hand, it does have some weak points in the sense that human personality need not be necessarily supposed to possess a physiological base and moreover we cannot think personality is so static and fixed as advocated by this definition. It is true that personality should be evaluated on the basis of generality of the behaviour but on the other hand, changes cannot be denied. The person who is an extrovert may turn into an introvert depending upon so many intervening factors.
In this way, evolution of an ideal definition capable of explaining the measuring of the term personality in all its aspects still needs some extensive research. In fact the concepts like personality are difficult to be explained as they have the identity like sound, electricity etc., the impact of which can be felt but the real nature of them is always a matter of secrecy. Something about them can be known by their utility or describing some of their characteristics and distinguished features. Let us seek the meaning of the term personality also con similar lines,
Distinguished features and characteristics of personality
The results of various experimental studies and observations have led to the identification of the following characteristics of personality.
1. The personality is something unique and specific. Every one of us is an unique pattern in ourselves. No two individuals not even identical twins, behave in precisely the same way over any period of time. Every one of us has specific characteristics for making adjustments.
2. Personality exhibits self-consciousness as one of its main characteristics. Man is described as a person or to have a personality when the idea of self enters into ‘his consciousness. In this connection H.R. Bhatia writes, ‘‘We do not attribute personality to a dog and even a child cannot be described as a personality because it has only a vague sense of personal identity.”’ (1968, p. 371).
3. Personality includes everything about a person. It is all that a person has about him. It includes all the behaviour patterns i.e., conative, cognitive and affective and covers not only the conscious activities but goes deeper to semi-conscious and unconscious also.
4. It is not just a collection of so many traits or characteristics which is known as personality. By counting the bricks only how can we describe the wall of a house? It needs something more and actually personality is more than this. It is organisation of some psychophysical systems or some behaviour characteristics and functions as a unified whole. Just as to describe an elephant, we cannot say that it is like a pillar only by examining its legs. In the same way by looking through one’s physique or sociability we cannot pass judgee ment over one’s personality. It is only when we go carefully into all the aspects—biological as well as social that we can form an idea about his presonality.
5. Personality is not static, it is dynamic and ever in process of change and modification. As we have said earlier that personality is all that a person has about him. It gives him all that is needed for his unique adjustment in his environment. The process of making adjustment to environment is continuous. One has to struggle against the environmental as well as the inner forces throughout the span of his life. As a result one has to bring modification and change in One’s personality patterns and it makes the nature of personality dynamic instead of a static one.
6. Every personality is the product of heredity and environment. Both contribute significantly towards the development of the child’s personality.
7. Learning and acquisition of experiences contribute towards the growth and development of personality. Every personality is the end product of this process of learning and acquisition.
8. Personality should not be equated with one’s. character. Character is an ethical concept. It represents a moral estimate of the individual. While personality, as a psychological concept, is a more comprehensive term which encircles in its sphere the character as one of the constituents of one’s personality.
9. Personality may further be differentiated from temperament which can be called a system of emotional disposition. This system of emotional disposition represents only the effective side of one’s personality and so personality must be taken as much beyond that of one’s temperament.
10. Personality should be viewed as different from the ego or the individual self. The word ‘‘ego”’ is generally used for that unified part of one’s personality which in ordinary language we call ‘‘I’’. However, as the psychoanalytic view of personality advocated by Freud explains, itis only asmall aspect of one’s total personality. Personality, therefore, stands for more than what the ego carries.
11. Every person’s personality has one more distinguishing feature that is aiming to an end—towards some specific goals. Adler asserts this view frankly in his book “‘Individual psychology”. He is of the opinion that a man’s personality can be judged through a study and interpretation of the goals he -has set for himself to achieve and the approaches he makes to the problems of his life.
While going through all that has been said in terms of the definitions and characteristics of personality, we may accept a workable definition of the term personality as under:
PERSONALITY IS A COMPLEX BLEND OF A CONSTANTLY EVOLVING AND CHANGING PATTERN OF ONE’S UNIQUE BEHAVIOUR, EMERGED AS A RESULT OF ONE’S INTERACTION WITH HIS ENVIRONMENT, DIRECTED TOWARDS SOME SPECIFIC ENDS IN VIEW.
Theories of personality
The search for understanding the meaning and nature of personality will be rather incomplete if we do not mention some important theories of personality. These theories in one way or the other, try to describe the basic structure and underlying entities or constructs involved in personality along with the processes by which these entities interact. The theories of personality in general can be classified into four broad categories as given ahead:
A. Theories adopting type approach
The viewpoint of Hippocrates, Kretschmer, Sheldon and Jung belong to this category.
B. Theories adopting trait approach
Theories like Aliport’s theory and Cattell’s theory of personality are based on trait approach.
C, Theories adopting type cum trait approach
Theories like Eysenck’s theory of personality can be put under this category.
D, Theories adopting developmental approach
Theories like psycho-analytic theory of Freud, theory of indivis dual psychology by Adler, Carl Roger’s Self theory, and learning theories of personality can be included in this category.
Let us summarize the viewpoints of the above mentioned theories:
Type approach: Theories adopting type approach, advocate that human personalities can be classified into a few clearly defined types and each person can be put in one or the other type depending upon his behavioural characteristics, somatic structure, blood types, fluids in the body, or personality traits. Based on such approach, the physicians of ancient India broadly categorized all human beings into three types. This classification was based on the three basic elements of the body i.e., pitt (bile), bute (wind), and kuf (mucus). Almost the same approach was followed by the Greek physicians like Hippocrates, one of the disciples of the great philosopher Aristotle. In the Subsequent years many more scholars and psychologists tried to divide persons into certain types depending upon their own specific criterion. Let us describe a few of such approaches.
Hippocrates’ classification: According to Hippocrates the human body consists of four types of humours of fluids–Blood. yellow bile, phlegm (mucus) and black bile. The predominance of one of these four types of fluids in one’s body gives him unique temperamental characteristics leading to a particular type of personality summarized as below:
Dominance of Floyd type in the body
Personality type
Temperamental characteristic
Blood
Sanguine
Light-hearted, optimistic, happy, hopeful and accommodating
Yellow bile
Choleric
Irritable angry but passionate and strong with active imagination
Phlegm (mucus)
Phlegmatic
Cold calm, slow, sluggish, indifferent
Black bile
Melancholic
Bad tempered, detected, sad, depressed, pessimistic, deplorable, and self involved.
Kretschmer’s classification: Kretschmer classified all human beings into certain biological types according to their physical structure and has allotted definite personality characteristics associated with each physical make-up as follows:
Personality types
Personality characteristics
I. Pyknic (having fat bodies)
Sociable, jolly, easy going and good natured.
II. Athletic (balanced body)
Energetic, optimistic and adjustable.
III. Leptosomatic (lean and thin).
Unsociable, reserved, shy, sensitive and pessimistic.
Sheldon’s classification: He, too like Kretschmer, classified human beings into certain types according to their physical structures and attached certain temperamental characteristics to them as under:
Personality type
Name
(According to somatic or body structure)
Description
Personality characteristics
Characteristics
Endomorphic
Person having developed viscera but weak somatic structure (like Kretschmer’s Pyknic type)
Easy going, sociable and affectionate
Mesomorphic
Balance development of viscera and somatic structure ( like Kretschmer’s athletic type)
Craving for muscular activity, self assertive, love risk and adventure
Ectomorphic
Week somatic structure as well as undeveloped viscera ( like Kretschmer’s Leptosomatic)
Pessimistic, unsocial, and reserved
The approach adopted by the above psychologists to have classification on the basis of seeking correlation between structure of the body and personality characteristics, is lopsided. It is somewhat misleading. There does not exist such perfect body-mind or bodyheart correlation as the propagators of these approaches have assumed.
Jung’s classification: He divided all human beings basically into two distinct types—Introvert and Extrovert according to their social participation and the interest which they take in social activities. Later on he further sharpened his two-fold division by giving subtypes. In this process he took into consideration the four psychological functions—thinking, feeling, sensation and intuition, in relation to his previous extrovert and introvert types. Diagrammatically, we can represent this division, along with the main characteristics of each sub-type as below:
Thinking
Introvert thinking type
(i) more theoretical
(ii) afraid of external realities
(iii) absorbing in his own intellectual pursuits.
Extrovert sensational type
(i) good taste and enjoyment seeker.
(ii) demand constant emotional sensation.
(iii) fluent in speech.
(iv) interested in athletics
Ill Sensation (Empiricism)
Introvert Sensational type
(i) cool and alloof
(ii) better in writing than speaking.
( iii) interested in books, magazines etc.
Introvert Feeling type / Feeling
(i) day dreamer
(ii) strong feelings, likes, dislikes.
(iii) go on suffering but do not express ( their feelings to others,
Thinking
Extrovert thinking type
(i) realistic and practical
(ii) support theory with facts.
Extrovert Intuition type
(i) optimistic
(i) Risk taker and change seeker.
IV Intuition/ Introvert Intuition type
(i) concerned with probabilities then actual (Prophet type).
(ii) not interested in external facts.
(iii) moody and temperamental.
Extrovert Feeling type
(i) helpful nature.
(ii) feel for others and admire others.
(iii) more social.
The classification has been criticised on the grounds that in general, such different types or classes as suggested by Jung do not exist. Most of us, on the basis of typical characteristics prescribed for extrovert and introvert. may belong to both of the categories, as may be called ambivert. This brings complication and, hence this type of approach does not give a clear picture of the Classification or description of personality.
Trait approach
In trait approach the personality is viewed in terms of traits. In our day-to-day conversation we label our friends and near ones with traits such as being honest, shy, aggressive, lazy, dull, dependent, etc. In the real sense, traits are defined as relatively permanent and relatively consistent general behaviour patterns that an individual exhibits in many situations. These patterns are said to be the basic units of one’s personality that can be discovered through observing one’s behaviour in a variety of situations. A person if he behaves honestly in several situations, after having generalization may be labeled as honest and honesty or laziness becomes a behavioural trait of his personality.
G.B. Allport (1897-1967) was the first personality theorist who adopted trait approach in providing a theory of personality. According to him, an individual develops an unique set of organized tendencies Or traits, generally, these traits are organised around a few cardinal (primary) traits. Allport’s theory of personality thus rejected the notion of a relatively limited number of personality types in favour of descriptions of highly individual personalities made up of a large number of traits.
Cattell’s theory
The most recent advanced theory of personality based on trait approach has been developed by Raymond B. Cattell, a British born American researcher. He has defined trait as a structure of the personality inferred from behaviour in different situations and describes four types of traits:
(i) Common traits: the traits found widely distributed in general population like honesty, aggression and cooperation.
(ii) Unique traits: unique to a person as temperamental traits, emotional reactions.
(iii) Surface traits: able to be recognized by our manifestation of behaviour like curiosity, dependability, tactfulness.
(iv) Source traits: Underlying structures or sources that determine one’s behaviour such as dominance, submission, emotionality etc.
The theory propagated by Cattell intends to give certain specific dimensions to personality so that the human behaviour, related to a particular situation, can be predicted. Cattell has adopted factor analysis as a technique for this work. We shall try to understand how he has done it in a non-technical way.
(1) Cattell began by attempting to obtain a complete list of all possible human behaviours. tn 1946 he formed a list of over 17000 traits and by eliminating similarities and synonyms reduced them to a list of 171 words (dictionary words) related with personality and called these trait-elements.
(2) The next step was to find out how they are related. He found that each trait element correlated high with some and low with others. In this way he managed to form some specific groups and called them Surface Traits. These surface traits identified were 35 in number.
(3) Again he went on examining these surface traits in terms of their intercorrejations. There was overlapping. The removal of such overlapping gave him the desired basic dimeasions which he called Source Traits i.e., the real structural influence underlying personality.
(4) After obtaining source traits (which are 15 in number) he tried to use them to predict behaviour employing what is known as specification equation.
Response = s1T1+s2T2+s3T3 ———Sn Tn
In this way the response or behaviour of an individual is predicted from the degree to which he exhibits each source trait (T) moditied by the importance of the trait for that response(s).
Let us clear it by an example.
Suppose that academic performance (AP) is predictable from two source traits called Intelligence (I) and Reading habits (R), then AP = s1I+s2R
Now also suppose that Intelligence is more important for this behaviour than Reading habits (in the ratio of 5: 3); then we might have an expression such as AP =5i+3R.
Thus in order to predict Academic performance (A.P.) tor an individual we need to know his intelligence and scores on reading habits.
In addition to this in 1950, Cattell, devised the Sixteen Personality factor questionnaire in the form of an inventory, these factors, which he claimed, may work as a “building blocks’’ of personality.
These sixteen factors (twelve independent and four partially independent), involved in the personality structure, are produced low:
A Reserved
B Less intelligent
C Affected by feelings
E Submissive
F Serious
G Expedient
H Timid
I Tough-minded
L Trusting
M Practical
N Forthright
O Self-assured
Q2 Conservative
Q3 Group-dependent
Q4 Uncontrolled Relaxed
V/S
↓
V/S
Outgoing,
More intelligent
Emoticnally Stable.
Dominant
Happy-go-Lucky. Conscientious
Venturesome
Sensitive.
Suspicious.
Imaginative
Shrewd
Apprehensive
Experimenting
Self-sufficient
Controlled
Tense
Type-cum-trait approach
This approach tries to synthesize the type and trait approaches. Starting from the trait approach it yields definite personality types. The Eyesenck theory of personality reflects such an approach.
Eysenck’s theory of personality
While Cattell has tried to give dimensions to personality by giving traits, Eysenck gave it more specification by grouping traits into definite types.
We have four levels of behaviour organisation.
(i) At the lowest level we have specific responses.
They grow out of particular responses to any single act. For example ‘blushing’ is a specific response.
(ii) At the second level we have habitual responses. If the individual reacts in a similar fashion when the same situation reoccurs we get habitual responses. For example the responses like:
(a) Not easily picking up friendship.
(b) Hesitant to talk to strangers etc., are habitual responses.
(iii) At the third level we have organisation of habitual acts into traits. The behaviour acts which have similarities are said to belong to one group called trait. In the above example the habitual responses no. (a) and (b) etc., give birth to a group or trait called ‘Shyness’.
(iv) At the fourth level we have organisation of these traits into a general type. A type is defined as a group of correlated traits. The traits which are similnr in nature give birth to a definite type just as in the given earlier, the traits like persistence, rigidity, shyness etc., have been grouped into a type which is ‘Introversion’.
Now at this final stage, ultimately, we obtain a definite type. A person, now can be classified as an Introvert if he has traits as described at III level, habits and habit systems as described at level II and responds specifically as described at level.
Eysenck has given the following distinct types:
(1) Introversion
(3) Neuroticism
(2) Extraversion.
(4) Psychoticism.
He has also tried to link different traits and characteristics with each of these types.
Developmental approach
The theories adopting developmental approach take into consideration, the. developmental patterns or characteristics of one’s personality.. How does the human personality develop gradually from various stages of growth and development? What directs or energises the forces of development of the personality? What type of personality characteristics are acquired as a result of development etc.? Let us iry to discuss some of the views mentioned involving this developmental approach.
Freud’s psychoanalytic theory of personality
Freud’s theory of personality is built on the premise that the mind ts topographical and dynamic: there are provinces or divisions which are always moving and interrelated. The human mind has three main divisions in the form of conscious, semiconscious and unconscious.
These three levels of the human mind continuously clash and compromise to give birth to one or other types of behavioural characteristics leading to a particular type of personality. Besides believes the anatomy of our personality is built around this as Freud and interrelating systems: Id, ego and super ego the three unified.
The Id is the raw, savage and immoral basic stuff of a Man’s personality that is hidden in the deep layers of one’s unconscious mind. It consists of such ambitions, desires, tendencics and appetites of an individual as guided by pleasure seeking principle. It has no values, knows no laws, follows no rules, does not consider right from wrong and considers only the satisfaction of its needs and appetites.
Obviously. the Id cannot be allowed to discharge its energy wildly and irresponsibly and thereby a second system: the ego, functions as a police man to check the unlawful activities of the Id. It is the executive with Veto powers. It follows the principle of reality and acts with intelligence in controlling, selecting and deciding what appetites have to be satisfied and in which way they are to be satisfied.
The third system of personality is super ego. It is the ethical moral arm of the personality. It is idealistic and does not care for realities. Perfection is its goal rather than pleasure. It is a decisionmaking body which decides what is bad or good, virtue or vice according to the standard of society, which it accepts.
The above mentioned constituents of personality play a significant role in deciding the personality of an individual. Let us see how.
1. The individuals who have a strong or powerful ego are said to have a strong or balanced personality because in their cases ego is capable of maintaining proper balance between super ego and Id.
2. In case an individual possesses a weak ego, he is bound to have a maladjusted personality. Here two situations may arise. In one situation the super ego may be more powerful than ego, it does not provide a desirable outlet for the repressed wishes and impulses. Consequently it may lead towards the formation of a neurotic personality. In another situation Id may prove more powerful than ego. The person, thus may engage himself in unlawful or immoral activities leading towards the formation of a delinquent personality. In addition to the above structure of the personality built around the concepts of Id. Ego and Super ego, Freud tried to provide an explanation of the development of human personality through his ideas about Sex. He emphasized that Sex is a life energy. The sexual needs of an individual are the basic needs which have to be satisfied for a balanced growth of the personality. If we want to know about the personality of un individual. a knowledge of his sex needs and their status of satisfaction is sufficient to tell us all about a person. He will have an adjusted or maladjusted personality depending on the extent to which his sex needs have been satisfied or not.
So much was his emphasis on sex, that he linked the whole development of the personality with the sex. behaviour by putting his theory of psycho-sexual development. In this theory, he outlined the five different psycho-sexual stages for the development of personality namely, oral, anal, phallic, latency and genital. Here we would not provide the description or explanation about these stages as it has already been presented earlier in chapter two of this text.
Adler’s individual approach to personality
Adicr opposed the Freudian’s structure of personality. He said that sex is not the life energy or the centre of human activities. Actually, power motive is the centre urge. Human beings are motivated by the urge to be important or powerful. All of us strive towards superiority but each strives in a different way. He named it as ‘style of life’. Therefore. what kind of personality one possesses, can be understood by studying his style of life 1.e., the goals of life he has set for himself and the way of striving for achieving these goals.
In this way he gave birth to the individual approach in the study of a personality pattern and maintained that there are no definite personality types or classes. Each individual is an unique pattern in himself because everybody has delinite goals and his own life style.
Carl Roger’s self theory
Carl Ransom Rogers, an American psychologist, in 1947 brought out a new theory of personality named Self-theory quite distinct from the earlier theories of personality. He stressed the importance of an individual’s self for determining the process of his growth and development, and unique adjustment to his environmeat. Thero are two basic systems underlying his personality theory—the organism and the self. Rogers considers them as systems operating in one’s phenomenological field (a world of subjective experience, the personal and separate reality of each individual). The “‘organism” is an individual’s entire frame of reference. It represents the totality of experience—both conscious and unconscious available with him. The second system the “Self” is the accepted, awareness part of experience. The self as a system of one’s phenomenal field can perhaps best be understood in terms of our concept of ‘‘I’’, ‘‘me” or “‘mysel ”.
What we think as a personality of an individual is the product of the interaction between the above mentioned systems of one’s phenomenological field. What we think of ourself or the acquisition of the concept of self is a long and continuous process. Human beings have inherited a tendency to develop their “self” in the process of inter-personal and social experiences which they have in the environment. In other words, our inner world —our natural impulses—interacts with our total range of experience to form the concept of our “Self”’. For example, if you say that you are a handsome person, you tend to include in the concept of your ‘‘self’’, the idea that you are handsome. in a similar way, we are ina continuous process of building the concept of our “‘self’. The so developed concepts of self may differ from person to person as they are purely based on one’s own personal experiences. Sometimes concepts of self are based more on personal needs than on reality, at other times as Rogers believes, we develop an ideal self i.e., a perception of what we would like to be.
Rogers does not propose a set of specific stages in the development of personality as proposed by Freud in his theory, rather he advocates continuity of growth in terms of the continuous evolution of the concept of ‘“‘self’. Once a concept of self is formed, the individual strives to maintain it. In order to do this, he regulates his behaviour. What is consistent with the concept of his self is immediately accepted and maintained at the conscious level while what threatens the image of self may be totally ignored or buried deep in bis unconscious.
The most unfortunate results in the development of one’s personality lie in the cases where an individual develops some false self-images. This false image is often so strong that obvious reality can be stoutly denied. Inconsistency between one’s actual image and false image, then may lead to abnormality in one’s behaviour. Similarly, the development of an ideal self too inconsistent, unreasonable and unattainable to harmonise with one’s real self may result in maladjustment and serious personality disorders.
Contrary to this, an individual’s adjustment, nappiness, growth and development all depend upon the union and harmony between
the image of his self and the organism (i.e. the experience or situations he meets in his life). Stressing the theme of psychological personality theory, Rogers emphasizes that a person normally possesses a great capacity for growth and realization of his individual potential and thus tries to advance continuously towards the development of his self (i.e. self-actualization) jor creating harmony between the concept of his self and his real life ‘experiences resulting in feelings of self integrity, self fulfilment and satisfying psychological growth. However the development runs into trouble when the self fails for some reason to incorporate and learn to live with its own new thoughts, feelings or behaviours. The goal of a therapist. as Rogers advocates in his therapy, in such cases lies m bringing the individual from what he or she is not, in a more unified fashion, to what he or she really is.
Learning theories of personality
Learning theories of personality depicts anew developmental approach quite different from psychoanalytic and phenomenological theories of personality in the sense that they stress the importance of learning and objectivity to understand personality. The notable psychologists who are known to develop personality theories are Paviov, Watson, Guthrie, Thorndike, Skinner, Dollard and Miller, Bandura and Walters, etc. Here we would like to make special mention of the theories developed by Dollard and Miller and Bandura and Walters.
Dollard & Miller’s learning theory of personality
By combining the psychology of learning with aspects of psychoanalytic theory, John Dollard and Neal Miller (1950) in the Institute of Human Relations at Yale University provided their own theory of personality. In this theory they tried to substitute Freud’s concept of a pleasure principle with the principle of reinforcement, concept of ego with the concept of learned drive and learned skills, concept of conflict with competing reinforcers, etc.
The theory of Dollard and Miller tries to describe the development of personality from simple’drives to complex function from a learning theory angle. It emphasizes that what we consider as a personality is learned. The child at birth is equipped with two types of basic factors: reflexes and innate hierarchies of responses and a set of primary drives, which are internal stimuli of great strength and are linked with known psysiological processes which impel him to action. Thus impelled by drives (both conditioned and unconditioned) he acquires responses to the extent that they reduce drives. Drive reduction yields in reinforcements (provides rewards) which in turn may give birth to many other drives or motives and set the individual to learn new responses and new behaviour patterns. Since our social environment is a major source of reinforcement, it plays a key role in creating new drives and motives, learning new responses and consequently developing our personality. In this way, Dollard and Miller’s theory of personality stressed the acquisition of personality in the same way, as learning of most of the responses and behaviour through the process of motivation and reward. Dollard and Millec’s theory of personality in actual sense, did not prescribe any static structure in personality. Instead, it emphasized haba formation through learning as a key factor in the development of personality. Habits are formed by S.R. Connections through learning. As one gruws in learning on the basis of experiences and interaction with one’s environment, the habits are reorganised, new habitsare learned and consequently one gets changed and developed in terms of learning new behaviour and picking up new threads of styles of one’s lite.
Bandura and Walter’s social learning theory
Albert Bandura and Richard Walters in 1963 gave altogether a new approach to personality in the shape of a social learning theory. This theory emphasizes that what one represents through his personality is very much acquired through a process of continuous structuring and restructuring of his experiences through social learning. Such type of social learning tukes place in the shape of observational learning when one gets opportunity to observe the behaviour of others considered as models. These behaviours are initiated, learned and produced by the individual at some later stage.
Such observational learning from social situations may involved both real and symbolic models. Children, for example, may learn social etiquette by watching their parents and elders as well as by direct instructions. What is perceived through mass media on T.V. or film screen in the form of the roles of one’s favourite hero or models is at once picked up by the viewers. The imitation of the model’s behaviour by the viewer is further reinforced by observing the reinforcement or reward that the model receives in response to his behaviour. The degree to which (i) the behaviour of the model, he observes, is reinforced and also (ii) his own learned behaviour, (through imitation) at a later stage, is reinforced, he is said to be benefited through such social or observational learning. Consequently, he picks up so many traits and modes of his behaviour from so many modelling sources that are responsible for the formation and development of his unique personality.
ASSESSMENT OF PERSONALITY
Why we have named the topic as assessment of personality and not simply as measurement of personality is a question which needs to be answered. The answer to this question lies itself in a questionis the measurement of personality possible? If not, what are the difficulties which have to be faced while trying to measure it? Let us think over it.
Difficulties in the measurement of personality
There are three basic elements involved in any process of measurement upon which the success or failure of this process depends. They are:
(i) The nature of the thing we want to measure,
(ii) Nature of the instruments with the help of which we have to measure it.
(iii) Nature of the person who is going to measure. Let us evaluate the personality measure on the above criteria.
(i) The nature of the thing: Personality is so complex that it is hardly possible to make it an object of measurement. First, because personality is not the thing, itis an idea. It is an abstraction, and in attempting to measure it we go wrong in trying to give it a concrete shape. Second, we are not clear about what exactly we want to measure in personality. Psychologists have reached no agreement about the dimensions or elements in personality. Third, personality is a dynamic phenomenon. It is not static. How can one measure a thing which is ever in a process of change and modification. Its measurement will certainly differ from time to time and hence it is not proper to call it measurement.
(ii) The nature of the instruments. The process of measurement, in addition to the object of measurement requires the tools and the satisfactory units of measurement. In personality measurement, we also encounter difficulties such as:
(a) There is no zero (starting point) for reference in case of personality. No child is born with zero personality.
(6) In measuring a rod we can measure it in terms of the unit of length like centimeters, inches etc. In measuring temperature we have units in terms of degrees but in psychological measurement we do not have any such equivalent or regular unit of measurement.
(c) For measurement we require such scales or measuring instruments as are exact, reliable and valid in terms of their results. In the field of personality measurement we do not find such satisfactory instruments.
(iii) The nature of the person. To a great extent, the objectivity, reliability and validity in any process of measurement depends upon the competency and impartiality or objectivity on the part of the person who performs the task of measurement. But after all he isa human being, having his own beliefs, likes and dishkes, tastes and temperaments and hence we cannot check the ‘influence of his subjectivity on any work of personality measurement.
In this way the actual measurement (which defines itself in terms of objectivity, reliability and validity) of personality is not possible. Also it is very difficult to go in search of all the constituents or elements Of personality, most of which are unknown. Moreover prediction of the future status is the most essential aim of measurement. In case of a dynamic phenomenon like personality such prediction is not possible and hence it is not justified to use the term measurement. We can only have an estimate of assessment personality.
Techniques and methods used for the appraisal of assess. ment of personality
The methods used for the assessment of personality are often classified as:
(i) Subjective methods
(ii) Objective methods
(iii) Projective methods.
But this classification suffers from so many drawbacks. It is difficult to draw a straight line between subjectivity and objectivity, even projective techniques cannot be saved from the subjectivity and self-projection of the examiner. Actually speaking, there is nothing like absolute objectivity in these methods. Objectivity (if at all we can have it) is nothing but subjectivity pooled together. Therefore it is proper to seek other ways of classifying the methods Of personality assessment.
We can classify these techniques in the following five categories.
First, there are techniques, where we can see how an individual behaves in actual life situations. The main techniques in this category are:
(a) Observation technique,
(b) Situation tests.
Second, there are techniques by which we can find what an individual says about himself. The main techniques in this category are:
(a) Autobiography
(b) Questionnaire and Personality Inventory
(c) Interview.
Third, there are techniques by which we can find what others say about the individual whose personality is under assessment. The main techniques in this class are:
(a) Biographies
(b) Case-history method.
(c) Rating Scales
(d) Sociometric techniques.
Fourth, there are techniques by which we can find how an individual reacts to an imaginative situation involving fantasy. All kinds of projective techniques are included in this class,
Fifth, there are techniques by which we can indirectly determine some personality variables in terms of physiological responses by machines and technical instruments.
SOME IMPORTANT TECHNIQUES
1. Observation
Observation is a popular method to study the behaviour pattern of an individual in actual life situation. What personality traits or characteristics the observer needs to know, are first decided by him and then he observes relevant activities of the subject in real life situations. The observation can be done in two ways. In one the observer does not hide his presence. He rather, becomes more or less a part of the group under observation. While in the other, he takes a position ata place where his presence is least disturbing to the gtoup but from where he can observe in detail the behavieur of an individual under observation. For having a clear idea the observer can make use of tape-recorder, photographic cameras, telescope otc. To ascertain whether the observer can rely on the observed results he can repeat observations in the same situation a number of times, or the subject may be observed by a number of observers and the results may be pooled together.
2. Situational tests
Here the situation is artificially created in which an individual is expected to perform acts related to the personality traits under testing. For example to test the honesty of an individual, some situations can be created and his reaction can be evaluated in terms of honesty or dishonesty. Does he feel temptation of copying? Does he try to pick up the one rupee note in a given situation?, all such instances can lead towards the assessment of the trait of honesty in the individual. “
3. Questionnaire
What is a questionnaire can be understood by the following description given by Goode and Hatt:
“‘In general the word questionnaire refers to a device for securing answers to questions by using a form which the respondent fills in himself.” (1952, p. 33).
This definition makes it clear that in collecting information from the subject himself about his personality characteristics, a form consisting of a series of printed or written questions, is used. The subject responds to these questions in the space provided in the form under the columns yes, no or cannot say (?) etc. These answers are then evaluated and used for personality assessment. Items, like the following, are included in the questionnaires:
Do you enjoy being alone? Yes, no, ? (not definite)
Do you enjoy seeing others successful? Yes, no, ? (not definite
Do you laugh at a joke on you? Yes, no, ? (not definite
Do you get along well with your relatives? Yes, no, ? (not definite
It is the most popular method and is quite useful in collecting quantitative as well as qualitative information. .
4. Personality inventory
It resembles Questionnaires in so many aspects like administration, scoring, interpretation etc. The difference can be seen in two ways.
First, the questionnaire is the general device and can be used fof collecting all kinds of information (not only connected with personality traits or behaviour of an individual). Personality Inventor, is specially designed to seek answers about the person and his personality.
Second, the questions, set in the Questionnaire, are generally addressable to the second person. They are such as:
Do you often feel lonely? Yes, no, ? while in the Personality Inventory, they are usually addressed to the first person such as: I often feel lonely. Yes, no, ?
The best known Personality Inventory is the Minnesota Multiphasic Personality Inventory (MMPI). The questions, included in this inventory are such that their answers are known to indicate certain specific personality traits. It consists of 550 items. Some of these items are presented below for illustration:
I sweat very easily even on cool days.
There is something wrong with my sex organs. I have never been in love with any one. I like to talk about sex.
Each item is printed on a separate card. The subject reads the questions and then, according to the category of his response—yes, no or doubtful—puts them at three places. With the help of these responses, evaluation in terms of the important personality traits can be obtained.
The Questionnaire and Personality Inventory suffer from the following drawbacks:
(i) It is difficult to get the response to all Questions.
(ii) The subject may give selected responses rather than the genuine ones (hide his weaknesses etc.).
(iii) He may be ignorant of certain traits or qualities which he may possess.
5, Rating scale
Rating scale is used to know from cthers where an individual stands in terms of some personality traits. Usually with the help of this technique, we try to have some specific idea about some of the personality traits of an individual (whom we do not know well), from the person, who knows him very well. It reflects the impression the subject has made upon the person who rates him. The three basic things involved in this technique are:
(i) The specific trait or traits to be rated.
(ii) The scale by which degree of possession or absence of the trait has to be shown.
(iii) The appropriate persons or judges for rating.
First of all, the traits or characteristics, which have to be evaluated by tho judges are to be stated and defined clearly. Then a scale for rating work is to be constructed. How it is done can be under stood through the following example.
‘Suppose we wish ta have rating on the ‘Quality of Leadership’ of the students of a class. We can have divisions of this quality into degrees such as very good, good, average, poor, very poor, etc. Now the arrangement of these divisions along a line, at equal intervals, from high to low or otherwise will be named as Rating Scale for assessing the quality of leadership. Usually the degrees are indicated by numbers, 1 to 3,1 to or 1 to 7, comprising three points, five point or seven points scale. The seven point scale is of tho following type:
7 Excellent 6 Very good 5 Good 4 Average 3 Below average 2 Poor 1 Very poor
Now the raters, who are in a position to rate the individuals properly, can be asked to rate them and give them scores, ranging from 1 to 7, according to the degree of leadership they possess.
Rating techniques suffer from some drawbacks like subjective bias and halo effect etc. In the former, the rater may have bis own likes and dislikes and this may go to colour his estimates about the individuals under rating, where under tho halo effect, he may rate an individual (on the basis of general impression) to be more honest or likeable than his actual potentialities.
To bring some reliability it has been suggested that instead of having rating by only one judge. we can assign the rating work to a number of judges—for example to different teachers, classmates, Parents etc.—who can pool in their judgements or ratings.
6. Interview
Interview is a technique of getting information, directly from the subject about his personality in face to face contacts. It gives an opportunity for mutual exchange of ideas and information between the subject and the Psychologists. For this purpose, the Psychologist tries to fix a face to face appointment with the person or persons under assessment. He makes sure of the personality traits or behaviour he has to assess and then he plans, accordingly. Usually, a list of questions, to be put, is prepared for this purpose and after taking the subject into confidence, the psychologist tries to seek answers to his pre-planned questions. He does not only care for the content of the responses but the tone, behaviour and other similar factors, are also kept in mind for the proper evaluation of the desued personality pattern of the individuals.
The limitation of this technique Is that it needs a well trained competent interviewer. It is costly in terms of labour, time and money.
It also suffers from the subjective bias of the interviewor, Here also like Questionnaire and Personality Inventory, we cannot have any safeguard to stop the subject to hide his feelings or to respond in terms cf selective answers. On the credit side, 100 percent to answer the questions put to the subject, are obtained through interview. There is very little danger of not getting answers to the questions and moreover we can get most confidential information from the subject which otherwise, he hesitates to reveal through writing. In fact, interview is relatively, a more flexible tool. It permits explanation, adjustment and variations according to the situation and thus proves one of the essential ard important tools for the personality assessment.
7. Projective techniques
So far we have discussed only those techniques which usually evaluate the overt or conscious behaviour of an individual. The covert or unconscious behaviour, by all means, is not so insignificant; rather it is more significant than the former, as Freud believes that our conscious behaviour is only one-tenth of the total behaviour. Therefore, there should be some other techniques which not only emphasize on the observable part of the human personality but can reveal his inner or private world and go deeper in the unconscious behaviour of an individual to dig out the repressed feelings, wishes, desires, fears, hopes and ambitions, etc.
Projective techniques are devised to accept the challenge. They try to assess the total personality of an individual and not in fragments. Let us see what these techniques are.
What are the projective techniques
These techniques are based on the phenomenon of projection. In these techniques relatively indefinite and unstructured stimuli (like vague pictures, ink-blots, incomplete sentences, etc.) are provided to the subject and he is asked to structure them in any way he likes. In doing so he unconsciously projects his own desires, hopes, fears, repressed wishes etc, and thus not only reveals his inner or private world but gives a proper clue to estimate his total personality. The common Projective Techniques are:
The Rorschach ink-blot test
This technique has been developed by the Swiss psychologist, son of an art teacher Mr. Harmans Rorschach. Material of the test consists of 10 cards on which we have ink-blots. Five of them are in black and white and five are multi-coloured. These ink-blots are completely unstructured—the shapes of the blots do not have any specific meaning.
Administration of the test
(i) The cards are presented one at a time in a specified order. When the subject takes his seat, the examiner gives him the first card with necessary instructions. He is asked to say what he sees in it, what does it look like, etc,
(ii) The subject is allowed as much time as he wants for a given card and is permitted to give as many responses to it as he wishes. He is also allowed to turn the card around and look at it from any angle to find things in it,
(iii) Besides keeping a record of the responses of the subject concerning these ink-blots on different pieces of paper, the examiner notes the time taken for each response, position in which cards are being held, emotional expression and other incidental behaviour of the subject during the test period etc.
(iv) After all the cards have been presented, the second phase of inquiry follows. It is mtended to seek clarification or addition to original responses.
Scoring, analysis and interpretation of the test: For the purpose of scoring, the responses are given specific symbols which are entered in 4 columns.
These scoring categories are named as:
(i) Location, (ii) Contents, (iii) Originality and (iv) Determinants.
Location (The first column). Location refers to the part of the blot with which the subject associates each response. The symbol W,D,d and 8 are used for scoring the location responses. The symbols stand for the things given ahead:
(W) for that response which shows that the subject is seeing the card as a whole.
(D) indicates large details.
(d) indicates small details.
(s) indicates the subject’s response to the white spaces within the main outlines.
Contents (2nd column). This column concerns itself with the contents of the responses. It simply takes note of what is seen by the subject and not the manner of its perception. Below we write some of the symbols used for scoring the content of the responses:
Scoring symbol Content of the response
H Subject sees human forms.
A Subject sees animal forms.
Ad or Hd Subject sees animal detail or human detail.
N Subject sees natural objects like rivers, mountains, green fields etc.
O Subject sees inanimate objects like lamp shade, pot, etc.
In this way for details of the contents the symbols are used and entered into the 2nd column.
Originality (3rd column). For each of 10 cards, certain responses are scored as popular, by symbol P, because of their common occurrence with some others in which something new is given, and thus they indicate some type of originality in them, are scoredjas original and depicted by the symbol O.
Determinants (4th column). This column takes note of the manner of perception i.e., the particular characteristics which have helped the subject in determining the blot of deciding his manner of perception. The main determinants are: (i) the form (F) of the blot, (ii) its colour (C), (iii) movement (M) and (iv) shading (K).
For example, if the subject responds to a blot as butterfly. then. we can say that it is the ‘‘form”’ which led to this way of seeing it and then we score the response as F. On the other hand, if the subject sees something like fire, blood etc., then the determinant is certainly the ‘“‘colour’’ and we enter C in the fourth column.
Subject’s responses on account of “‘shading” e.g., perception of rough or smooth surfaces, smoke, cloud etc., are scored as K, whereas if the subject responds in terms of ‘movements’ —movement of human beings (like boy running, dancing etc.), animal being (like dog barking) or inanimate objects (water owing, cloth moving etc.) the symbols, M Fmor m are entered in the 4th column of dcterminants. We can have cases where we note thom by mixed symbols as (CF), (FK), etc.
Interpretation: Now, in all the four columns the different symbols are counted. It gives an idea of the relative frequencies of different kinds of responses. The entry of scores (in symbols) in different columns can be roughly made in the following way:
I Column location Il Column content lIl Column Originality lV Determinant Frequency
The relative frequencies of the different symbols within the scoring categories and among the several categories help the interpreter to decide the personality characteristics of the subject. For example if:
(i) the number of W’s are greater than d or D; then the person is said to be mature, intelligent and is expected to possess the ability to synthesize.
(ii) More frequency on the side of the colour at the expense of human movement indicates an extrovert nature while domination of M over colour, an introvert.
(iii) Dominance of shading responses expresses anxiety, depressed attitudes and feeling of inferiority and
(iv) Relatively more emphasis on movement indicates richness of one’s imaginative life.
It is not only the relative importance or occurrence of certain kinds of responses which help in interpretation, the various other factors like time factor, the behaviour of the subject at the time of reactions etc., also have their meanings.
Therefore, it is only through various kinds of relationships, observations, records and integration of results from various parts that a final global picture about a subject’s personality can be drawn. The test demands a lot of training and skill in scoring and interpretation on the part of the examiner and therefore, the work should be considered as a serious one and should only be done by an experienced and trained psychologist.
TAT or Thematic Apperception Test
The test consisting of perception of a certain picture in a Thematic manner (revealing imaginative themes) is called TAT or The matic Apperception Test. This test was developed by Murray and Morgan.
Test material and administration: It consists of 30 pictures which portray human beings ina variety of actual life situations. Ten of these cards are meant for males, 10 for females and 10 for both. In this way the maximum number of pictures used with any subiect is 20. The test is usually administered in two sessions, using 10 pictures in cach session.
The pictures are presented one at a time. They are vague and indefinite. The subject is told clearly that this is a test of creative Imagination and that there is no right and wrong response. He has to make up a story for each of the pictures presented to him, within a fixed time period. He has to take care of the following aspects while knitting the story:
(i) What is going on in the picture? (ii) What has led to this scene? (iii) What would happen in such a situation?
In making up the stories the subject unconsciously projects so many characteristics of his personality. There is no time to think. Therefore, the stories express his own life—natural desires, likes and dislikes, ambitions, emotions, sentiments etc. Its special value resides in its power of exploring the underlying hidden drives, complexes and conflicts of the personality. An expert examiner can know much about the personality of his subject by carefully interpreting the given responses.
Scoring and interpretation. Originally Murray analyzed the contents of the stories according to need and presses (the need of the hero and the environmental forces to which he is exposed). Today this way of interpretation is not generally followed. Nowadays, the system of scoring and interpretation takes account of the following:
(i) Hero of the Story—What type of personality he has?
(ii) Theme of the Story—What is the nature of the theme or plot used in making the story?
(iii) The style of the story—Length of the story, language used, direct or indirect expression, forced or poor expression, organisation of the contents, originality and creativity, etc.
(iv) The content of the story—What interests, sentiments, attitudes they depict. In which manner (reality or fantasy) the behaviour has been expressed. What inner-state of the mind, the story reveals.
(v) Test situation as a whole—The subject’s reaction to be listed as a whole.
(vi) Particular emphasis or omissions—The omission, addition, distortion and attention to particular details.
(vii) Subject’s attitude towards authority and sex.
(viii) Outcome. Conclusion of the story—happy, unhappy, Comedy, etc.
As a whole, the recurring themes and features contribute more than a single response towards interpretation. Moreover, the global view of one’s personality should be based on the responses of all the 20 pictures shown to the subject. There are so many chances of misinterpreting the stories’ contents by an immature examiner. Therefore, the future of TAT hangs on the possibility of perfecting the interpreter more than in perfecting the material. He should be given full opportunity for acquiring essential knowledge and training for this purpose.
CAT (Children Apperception Test)
TAT test works well with adults and adolescents but for children it is not suitable. For children between 3 to 10 years, the CAT was developed by D. Leopold Bellak.
Description of the test: It consists of 10 cards. The cards have pictures of animals instead of human characters since it Was thought that children could identify themselves with animal figures more readily than with persons. These animals are shown in various life situations. For both sexes, all the 10 cards are needed. The pictures are designed to evoke fantasies relating to a child’s own experience, reactions and feeling. Whatever story the child makes, he projects himself. It isa colour free test but it demands some alterations rocording to the child’s local conditions.
Administering the test: All the 10 cards are presented one by one and the subject is asked to mike up stories on them. The child should have confidence and he should take story making a pleasant game to play with.
Interpretation. Interpretation of the stories is centred round the following eleven variables:
(i) Hero. The personality traits of the hero as revealed by the story.
(ii) Theme of the story. What particular theme has he selected for the story building?
(iii) The end of the story: Happy ending or unhappy, wishful, realistic or unrealistic.
(iv) Attitude towards parental figures. Hatred, respectful, devoted, grateful, dependent, aggressive and fearful, etc.
(v) Family role. With whom in the family the child identifies himself.
(Vi ) Other outside figures introduced. Objects or external elements introduced in the story but not shown in the pictures.
(vii) Omitted or ignored figures. Which figures are omitted or ignored should be noted as they may depict the wish of the subject that the figures were not there.
(viii) Nature of the anxietics. Harassment, loss of love, afraid of being left alone etc., should also be noted.
(ix) Punishment for crime. The relationship between a crime committed in the story and severity of punishment given for it.
(x) Defence and confidence. The type of defences, flight, ageression, passivity, regression etc., the child takes, nature of compliance or dependence, involvement in pleasure and achievement, sex desire, etc.
(xi) Other supplementary knowledge. The language, the overall structure of the stories, time taken for completing them and the reactions of the subject at the time of making the story etc.
With all this knowledge an expert interpreter can pronounce judgement on the various aspects of the child’s personality.
Word association test
In this technique there are a number of selected words. The subject is told that:
(i) the examiner will utter a series of words, one at a time,
(ii) after each word the subject is to reply as quickly as possib!e With the first word that comes to his mind, and
(iii) there is no right or wrong response.
The examiner then records the reply to each word spoken by him; the reaction time and any unusual speech or behaviour manifestations accompanying a given response. The contents of the responses along with the other recorded things give clues for evaluating the human Personality and thus help a psychologist in his work.
Sentence completion tests
These tests include a list of incomplete sentences, generally ‘open at the end, which require completion by the subject in one or more words. The subject is asked to go through the list and answer as quickly as possible (without giving a second thought to his answers). For example, we can have the following sentences:
I feel proud when……..
My hero is………
I feel proud when ….
The Sentence completion tests are regarded as superior to Word Association because the subject may respond with more than one word. Also there it is possible to have a greater flexibility and variety of responses and more area of personality and experiences may be tapped.
In addition to the projective techniques mentioned above there are some others which may prove useful in many situations. They are play technique, drawing and painting tests etc. Both of these techniques are very useful in the case of small children. In the former, the examiner observes the spontaneous behaviour of the children while playing or constructing something with the help of given material and in the latter, the natural free hand drawing and paintings of the children are the matter of the study. Both of these techniques provide a good opportunity for the careful analysis of a child’s personality.
SUMMARY
A good personality is often taken as synonymous to one’s charming appearance, healthy build-up, pleasing behaviour patterns, good character, fine temperament, etc. The personality, although it includes all these aspects of one’s self, yet is far beyond each or the sum total of these attributes. It may be defined as a complex blend of a constantly evolving and changing pattern of one’s unique behaviour, emerged as a result of one’s interaction with his environment, directed towards some specific ends in view.
Personality theories try to throw light on the structure of personality by adopiing various approaches like type, trait, trait-cum type and developmental approach.
Theories adopting type approach try to classify people into categories or type according to certain characteristics. Hippocrate classified people according tothe type of humour or fluid found in one’s body. Kretschmer emphasized specific biological types based on body structures. Sheldon also identified three distinct types based on the relationship between a person’s physique and behaviour. Hung too adopted the type approach in classifying people in terms of introversion and extroversion.
Theories adopting trait approach try to describe people in terms of an unique pattern of traits. They dofine traits as relatively permanent and relatively consistent general behaviour patterns that an individual exhibits in many situations. Notable among these theories are the personality theories of Allport and Cattell. Cuttell used factor analysis to identify surface traits and source traits and provided sixteen factors as the building blocks of personality.
Eysenck’s theory of personality presents trait cum type approach towards personality. Starting from the traits it yielded definite personality types.
Theories adopting developmental approach try to describe personality from a development angle. Freud used this approach in providing psychoanalytic theory of personality. He proposed that there are three mind levels—the conscious, the sub-conscious and the unconscious that operate to shape personality. Besides this be believed that the anatomy of our personality is build-around three unified and interrelated systems: Id, ego and super ego. He also held that sexuality is at the core of human behaviour. For the development of the personality, the child has to pass through five psychosexual stages, namely, oral, anal, phallic, latent and genital.
Adler, while disagreeing with Freud emphasized power motive as a life energy in place of sex. He gave birth to individual approach in the study of personality.
Carl Rogers’ self theory holds personality asa function of the interaction between the two systems (The organism and the self) of one’s world of subjective experience. He likened personality with the development and maintenance of the self-concept and the attempt to achieve the ideal self.
Dollard and Miller in his learning theory of personality attempted to combine learning theory with psychoanalytic theory and viewed personality asa function of drive reduction. Bandura and Walters in his theory of social learning emphasized that people acquire personality characteristics by observing and imitating real life and symbolic models
We can only have the éstimate or assessment of personality as the true measurement of one’s personality is not possible. This assessment can be made through a variety of techniques like observation, situation, tests, questionnaire, personality inventory, rating scale, interview, and projective techniques.
Projective techniques make use of ambiguous or unstructured stimuli in order to permit people to impose their own perception of stimuli. The various techniques involved in such category may be named as Rorschach Ink-blot Test, Thematic Apperception Test (TAT), Children Apperception Test (CAT), Word Association Test, sentence completion test, play technique, drawing and painting test, etc.
References and Suggested Readings
Abramson, Paul R., Personality, New York: Holt, 1980.
Adler. A., Practice and Theory of Individual Psychology, New York: Harcourt Brace & World, 1927
Anastasi, A., Psychological testing (2nd ed.) New York: Macmillan, 1961,
Allport, G.W., Personality—-A Psychological Interpretation, New York: Holt, 1948.
Allport, G.W., Pattern and Growth in Personality, New York: Hott, 1961;
Bandura, A & Walters, R.H., Social Learning and Personality Development, New York; Holt, 1963.
Bhatia, H.R., Elements of Educational Psychology (3rd ed. reprint), Calcutta, Orient Longman, 196s..
Butcher, James, N., Objective Personality Assessment, New York: Academic Press, 1972.
Cattell, R.B. quoted by Hall, C.S. and [Lindzey, G -» (2nd ed.) Theories of Personality, John Wiley, 1970,
Cohen, R and Dirk, L Schaeffer, Patterns of Personality Judgment, New York: Academic Press, 1973.
Cronbach, L.J., Essentials of Psychological Testing (3rd ed.) New York: Harper & Row, 1970.
Dollard, J and Miller, N.E., Personality and Psychotherapy, New York: McGraw-Hill, 1950.
Eysenck, H J., Dimensions of Personality, London: Kegan Paul, 1947.
Esenck, H.J., The Structure of Human Personality (3rd ed.) New York: Methuen, 1971.
Fordham, F., An Introduction to Jung’s Psychology, London: Penguin Books, 1953.
Freud, S., An outline of Psychoanalysis, New York: Norton, 1939. Freud, S., An outline of Psychoanalysis, London: Hogart, 1953. Good and Hatt, Methods of Social Research, New York: McGraw Hill, 1952.
Hall. C.S. and Nordby, V.J., A Primer of Jungian Psychology, New York: New American Library, 1973.
Hall, C.S. and Lindzey, G., Theories of Personality (3rd ed.) New York: John Wiley, 1978.
Hogan R., Personality Theory—Englewood Cliffs, New Jersey: Prentice Hall, 197
Janis, I.L-, Mahl. G.F., Kagan, J & Holt R.R., Personality Dynamics, Development and Assessment, New York: Harcourt Brace, 1969.
Jones, E., The Life and Work of Sigmund Freud (Lionell Trilling and Steven Marcus, eds.) Garden City, New York: Anchor, 1963.
Klopter. |B and Kelley, D., The Rorschach Technique, Yonkers: World Book Co. 1946.’
Kretschmer, E , Physique and Character, New York: Harcourt Brace, 1925.
Maddi,S.R., Personalities Theories: A Comparative Assessment, Homewood Illinois: Dorsey, 1672.
Mischel, Walter, Personalisies and Assessment, New York: John Wiley, 1976.
GLOSSARY
Absolute threshold: The minimum amount of physical stimulus that is needed to produce a sensation 50 per cent of the time.
Accommodation, visual: The change in shape of the lens to focus an image on the retina.
Achievement motive: An urge to succeed, to perform well or better than others.
Achievement test: Test designed to measure what an individual has already learned.
Achromatism: Complete colour blindness caused by the absence of cones in the retina of the eye.
Activation theory of emotion: Theory stating the emotion is a state of general excitation.
Adaptation level: Standard level of stimulation to which an individual has become accustomed and which he then uses in Judging other stimuli.
Adrenalin (epinephrine): Hormones produced by the adrenal glands to assist the body in reacting to stress.
Adrenocorticothropic hormone (ACTH): Pituitary hormones associated with stress.
A ffiliation motive: An urge to be with others.
After images, Visual: An image that persists after the termination of stimulus.
All-or-none law: Principle that nerve fibres respond completely or not at all..
Ambivalence: In psychoanalytic theory, the simultaneous and often unconscious holding of opposite emotions, such as love and hate toward one person.
Ambivert: Alternating introvert and extrovert. Amplitude: Half the distance between the trough and the height of the crest of a wave.
Anal stage: Second stage of psycho sexual development in Freudian psychology.
Androgens: Male sex hormones, also secreted in small amount in females.
Aperceptive mass: The totality of a person’s associations to a stimulus or an event.
Apparent motion: Motion perceived because the observer sees an object in successive different positions rather than because the object is actually moving.
Aptitude: Specific ability indicative of one’s potentiality to get desired future success. Auditory area: Area of the cortex stimulated by the auditory
sensory neurons located along the upper portion of the temporal fobe.
Autokinetic motion: The apparent movement of a stationary object such as a point of light m a dark room.
Autosome: 22 pairs of chromosomes that determine the development of our body structures and characteristics.
Axon: Extended nerve fibre that carries impulses from one cell body to other nerve celis or to a muscle or glands.
Basilar Membrane: The membrane within the cochlea of the inner ear on which the organ of Corti is located.
Basket nerve findings: Nerve ending wrapped around the base of a hair, receptor for the pressure sense.
Behaviour modification. Change in behaviour brought about by Operant conditioning techniques.
Binaural cues: Cues for the distance and location of sounds requiring two ears.
Binocular cues: Cues for depth perception requiring two eyes. Binocular disparity: The difference between the retinal images of the two eyes that arises because each eye sees an object from a slightly different location.
Blaky Test: A projective test using a series of cartoons of dogs who engage in behaviour that the subject describes in a story.
Blind Spot: Small spot in the retina with no light sensitive cells.
Brain Stem: Lower part of the brain, an enlargement of the spinal cord.
Brightness constancy: Perception of objects as maintaining the same brightness even though the amount of light reaching the retina changes.
Castration complex: A concept in Freudian theory attributed to children involving fear of losing the penis for males and anxiety at having ‘‘lost” the penis for females.
Catharsis: A process involving the release of emotional tension through expression of the emotion.
Cerebellum: The part of the brain close to the brainstem responsible for body balance and coordination of body movements.
Cerebral Cortex: Thick folded layer of tightly packed nerves covering the cerebrum also called the new brain.
Cerebrum: Largest part of the braim composed of the two cerebral hemispheres, left brain and the right brain.
Chromosomes: Threadlike body in the cell nucleus that contains genes.
Chronological ages Age in years or calendar age.
Chunking: Grouping associated bits of material into one unit for processing by memory.
Classical conditioning: A kind of learning in which a conditioned stimulus comes to elicit a response after having been paired with an unconditioned stimulus that innately elicits the response.
Closure: Gestaltist’s term for a person’s perceptual tendency to “close up” figures.
Cochlea: Part of the ear containing fluid that vibrates, which ijn turn causes the basilar membrane to vibrate.
Cognitive dissonance: Perceived in consistency between, two different beliefs, ideas or attitudes,
Cognitive map: Concept developed by Tolman, involving a spatial representation or formation of mental hypothesis to reach a goal.
Collective unconscious: A term used by Jung for the part of the
unconscious that is inherited and common to all members of a ‘species.
Colour anomalies: Defects of colour vision in which the colours of some wave lengths are abnormally perceived.
Colour blindness: Partial or total inability to perceive colours.
Colour mixing: The mixing together of pigments or lights or different colours to form new colours.
Concept: Generalized idea involving perception of a particular shared property in a given group of stimuli.
Concordance: A simple measure of the resemblance between pairs of individuals or objects.
Cones. Receptor cells in the retina responsible for colour vision.
Connected discourse: Written or spoken grammatical utterances; normal language.
Control group: Group exposed to all experimental conditions
except the independent variable in order to compare with the experimental group.
Cornea: Transparent outer coating in front of the iris of the eye.
Cultural fair test: Intelligence test designed to eliminate cultural bias.
Dark adaptation: A kind of visual adaptation involving increasing ability to see after being in the dark for a time.
Death instinct: A Freudian concept representing an urge leading to destruction and death.
Decay theory of forgetting: Theory of forgetting which holds that memorizedmaterial gradually fades from memory over time.
Decibel: Unit of measurement for the loudness of sounds.
Delusion: A fixed but erroneous belief strongly held even though it does not correspond to physical or social realities.
. Dependent variable: The variable that undergoes change, in an experiment with the changes introduced in the independent variable.
Deprivation: Condition under which needs are unfulfilled.
Dendrite: Fibre extending from the neuron which receives information from sense organs or the axon of an adjacent neuron and passes it to the cell body.
Difference threshold: Smallest difference between a pair of stimuli that can be perceived, also called just noticeable difference.
Dominant gene: A gene with the capacity to express itself wholly, to the exclusion of the other member of the pair of genes.
Drive reduction: Diminution of the state of tension of an organism by the achievement of a reinforcing goal.
Eardrum: A thin stretchable membrane in the middle ear that vibrates when sound waves exert pressure against it.
EEG (Electroencephologram): A record of the electrical activity of the brain.
Ecolocation: The location of objects by the use of sound cues reflected from the objects that are approached.
Efferent neuron: A neuron that carries the impulse from the brain or spinal cord to the muscles (also called motor neuron).
Egg: A female reproductive cell produced in the ovary.
Ego: A concept in psychoanalytical approaches related with the part of personality that mediates between the id and super ego to deal with reality.
Embryo: An organism in the early stage of its development, in humans from the second to the eighth week after conception.
Encapsulated end organs: Pressure-sensitive receptors found near the surface of the skin.
Endocrine glands: Ductless glands that secrete hormones directly snto the bloodstream.
Engram. A hypothetical physical trace by which a memory is stored in the brain.
Erogenous Zones: The areas of the body that provide pleasure when stimulated.
Estrogens: Sex hormones present in both sexes but found in higher concentrations in the females.
Estrous cycle: Hormone cycle related to femate fertility cycle.
Experimental Group: The group subjected to a change in an independent variable for carrying out experimental studies.
Extinction: Cessation of a behaviour in classical and operant conditioning.
Extrovert: Jung’s term to describe a personality that focuses on social life and the external world instead of its internal experience.
Factor analysis: A statistical technique to determine overlapping Characteristics (in terms of factors) of certain measures.
Fantasy: Reaction to frustration by withdrawing and seeking pleasure in the world of one’s make-believe.
Feed back: Knowledge of the results of an action. Fetus: Prenatal organism in final 30 week period before birth.
Figure-ground relationship: Perception typified by one feature Standing out against a larger background.
Fixation: A concept in Freudian theory indicating an object or way of behaviour to which libido is attached at an early stage.
Fore-hrain : Top portion of brain consisting of thalamus, hypothalamus and cerebrum and controlling all “higher level’’ behaviour.
Fovea: Area ofthe retina containing the cones of bright light and colour vision.
Free-association: A psycho-analysis technique in which the patient expresses whatever comes into his mind for revealing his unconscious.
Free nerve endings: Structures below the surface of the skin responsible for detection of pain, warmth, cold, etc.
Frontal lobes: Large section of the cerebrum, containing motor Projection areas and centres for speech, problem solving and reasoning.
Functionalism: School of psychology that studies the purpose underlying behaviours.
Functional fixedness: A kind of mental rigidity, not perceiving beyond a familiar use of a familiar object.
Gate Control theory: Theory of pain holding that the paid signaling system contains a gate like mechanism that may be opened fully, partly or not at all for regulating the level of pain felt by organism.
Galvanic skin response: A change in electrical resistance of the skin that may occur during many emotions.
Genes: The basic carriers of heredity located in chromosomes.
Genital stage: The stage of normal adult sexual behaviour in Freud’s theory of psycho-sexual development.
Gestalt: A perceptual whole. Gonads: Male (testes) and female (ovaries) sex glands. Habituation: State of being accustomed to a particular situation.
Hair cells: A part of the organ of corti that participates in transduction of mechanical energy (set up by sound waves) into electrical discharges of the auditory nerve.
Hertz. Unit of measurement for the frequency of light or sound waves.
Hierarchi of needs: Maslow’s description of human needs begin
ning with physiological needs to the higher order needs having selfactualization on the top.
Hind brain: Portion of the brain containing the medulla, pons and cerebellum.
Homeostasis: A state of physiological equilibrium that is maintained by innate and automatic regulatory mechanisms. Hormones. Chemicals secreted by the endocrine glands.
Hypothalamus: Area of the fore-brain that plays a critical role in motivation and emotional responses. ,
Hypothesis: Idea that is tested experimentally.
Id: A concept in Freudian psychology that relates with unconscious amoral and irresponsible personality. It functions on the pleasure principle and is the reservoir of instincts.
Ideal Self: The goals and aims of the individual set in Roger’s theory of “‘Self’’.
Identification : Unconsciously taking on characteristics of another person.
Illusion: Perception that does not correspond with actual stimuli.
Image: The representation of an object focused on the retina; recollection or reconstruction of a sense experience.
Immediate memory: The process by which we can recall something for a half second after having perceived it.
Imprinting: The tendency of an organism during a critical period of its early development to follow a moving object and to form a lasting attachment to that object.
Incentive: A kind of reward that reinforces the behaviour in its own right.
Independent variable: Variable that is manipulated in an experiment while all others are held constant.
Inferiority complex: Deeply rooted feelings of inadequacy.
Inhibition. A concept in learning theory of conditioning that relates to a process that counters the conditioned response and results in extinction.
Insight: The sudden occurrence of the solution to a problem or of a novel idea.
Insulin: Hormones secreted by the pancreas that regulates bloodsugar levels.
Intelligence Quotient (I.Q.): A measure of intelligence. It is equal toa person’s mental age divided by chronological age and multiplied by 100.
Interference theory of forgetting: The theory of forgetting holding that we forget things because other knowledge gets in the way..
Inter-position: A cue to depth; if one object appears to be interposed between the viewer and another object, the inter-posed object Is judged to be closer to the viewer.
Introspection: The observing and reporting of one’s own covert behaviour.
Intervening variable: A state or mechanism that comes between a cause and its effects.
Introvert. Jung’s term to describe a personality that focuses on its own thoughts and feelings instead of the outside world.
Iris: Coloured part of the eye.
Kinesthesis: Sense of position and movement in space guided by internal bodily stimulation from the muscles and joints.
Latency period: A stage of psycho-sexual development, in Freudian psychology, from age of 6 to puberty in which sexual drives are dormant.
Lateral fissure: Deep groove on the lateral surface of the cerebral cortex, sefarating the temporal lobe from the frontal and parietal lobes.
Lateral hypothalamus: A region of the hypothalamus that largely controls the motivated behaviour resulting from the biological drives of hunger and thirst serving as a centre for these drives.
Law of Pragnanz: A Gestalt law of perceptual organization emphasizing the wholeness and meaningfulness of perceived objects.
Learning: Relatively permanent changes in the behaviour of the learner brought about by experience or training.
Libido: A concept in Freud’s psychology denoting the basic sexual drive or instinct responsible for every aspect of a person’s behaviour.
Lie detector (Polygraph): Aninstrument to record autonomic nervous system changes brought on by emotion provoking stimuli.
Life Instinct: A concept in Freudian psychology related with an inner urge that leads towards construction and integration and away from death.
Life style. A concept in Adler’s psychology depicting the typical attitudes and behaviour constituting the essential ways a person lives.
Limbic system: A group of closely inter-connected structures at the core of the brain that works with the hypothalamus to control the emotions and motivational processes.
Linear perspective: A cue to depth and distance based on the fact that parallel lines seem to come closer together as they become more distant.
Localization of functions: The doctrine that particular psychological functions are located in particular parts of the brain.
Long term memory (LTM): The memory for items retained indefinitely; has almost limitless storage capacity; codes information according to meaning, pattern and other characteristics.
Massed practice. The continuous study of material to be memorized without rest periods.
Maturation: The changes in behaviour of an organism resulting from physiological growth, the blueprints of which are provided by heredity.
Medulla: The part of the bind brain that regulates breathing, heart rate and blood pressure.
Memory drum: A device used in memory experiments for repetitively presenting verbal material to be memorized to a subject one item at a time.
Memory span: The amount of material that can be retained in immediate memory, usually seven items plus or minus two.
Memory Trace: Believed to be a fragile highly perishable neural response produced by sensory experience likely to bring retention if sepeated often enough.
Menopause: A stage of cessation of ovarian functioning in females.
Mental age: Mental development expressed in years or months as determined by an intelligence test.
Method of constant Stimuli: A psychophysical method for determining thresholds of sensation in which several stimuli. from above and below the threshold, are presented, and the subject indicates which he can perceive.
Method of forced choice: A psychophysical method for determining the thresholds of sensation in which the observer is forced to choose one alternative on each trial.
Method of limits: A psychophysical method for determining thresholds of sensation in which the stimulus intensity is raised of lowered until the subject can just detect it or just not detect it.
Mid brain: Area of the brain that controls auditory and visual responses.
Mnemonics: Techniques to make material easier to remember.
Modeling: A type of imitation in which one individual does what He sees his model (whether person) doing.
Monaural Cues : Cues for the distance of the sound using only one ear.
Monocular Cues: Cues for the distance of visual objects using, only one eye.
Motivated forgetting: Loss of memory for material because of conscious or unconscious wish or reason not to remember.
Motion parallex: The apparent motion of objects.as an observer’s head turns from side to side.
Motor area: Primary area of the cortex responsible for motor functions.
Motor Skill: Skill involving coordination of the skeletal muscle system.
Miiller-Lyer illusion: An illusion of length in which two lines of equal Length appear unequal on account of out interpretation of angles at the ends of the lines as perspective cues.
Myelin Sheath: Fatty covering found on some axons.
Naturalistic Observation: A psychological method of studying behaviour by observing the subjects in their natural settings.
Need: Deprivation caused by a lack of something necessary to survival or well being.
Need reduction: The satisfaction of one’s biological or sociopsychological needs.
Negative reinforcer: Reinforcement of a response by the postponement, withdrawal or termination of an aversive or unpleasant stimulus.
Negative transfer: A type of transfer of training or learning in which learning of one task interferes or disrupts the learning of other tasks.
Nerve fibre. An axon or dendrite of a neuron, many of which together form a nerve, transmitting nerve impulses to and from the central nervous system.
Nervous system: Central control system of the body which organizes and coordinates the functions of the organism.
Nerve tract: Bundles of axons in the brain and spinal cord that travel together.
Neuron: Nerve cell that is the basic unit of the nervous system.
Non-sense syllable: A syllable, usually of three letters. (Consonantvowel-consonant), Which has no meaning, used as a material in memory experiments.
Occipital lobes: Areas of cerebral cortex responsible for vision.
Oedipus Complex: A concept in Freudian psychclogy indicating tendency of a child to show feelings of love and desire for oppositesex parent and of jealousy and hostility toward same-sex parent.
Olfactory sense organ: Organ that is responsible for the sense of smell, situated high upon the walls of each side of the nasal cavity.
Operant Conditioning: Type of conditioning referred to a kind of learning process whereby a response is made more probable or more frequent by reinforcement (consequences of its occurrence).
Opponént process theory: Theory of colour vision that holds that three sets of cones respond in an either/or fashion to each of three primary colour pairs.
Oral Stage: First stage in Freud’s psychoanalytic theory of personality during first 18 months of life in which intense pleasures are derived from activities that involve the mouth.
Organ of Corti: Spiral structure in the cochlea that contains the receptor cells for hearing.
Oval window: The membrane separating the middle and inner ear, that conducts vibrations to the cochlea.
Ovaries: Female sex glands that produce egg cells and sex hormones.
Ovum: Female sex cell.
Oxytocin: Hormone secreted by the posterior pituitary that signals the uterus to start contractions during child-birth and the mammary glands to produce milk.
Paired associate list: A list of paired items used as material in memory experiment. The subject is asked to learn to respond with the second of the pair when presented with the first of the pair.
Pancreas: Endocrine gland that secretes two hormones —insulin and glucagen, which control the blood sugar level.
Para sympathetic division: Division of the nervous system that leads to relaxation of internal organs and muscles after stress.
Parietal lobes: Areas of cerebral cortex concerned with body sense such as temperature, pain, and the feel of.
Part method: A technique of memorizing in which the lengthy material is broken into parts, for memorizing them separately and then in their order.
Peer group: One’s associates, by whom one is treated as an equal.
Penis envy. A concept in Freudian psychology depicting the female’s unconscious desire to have a penis.
Perception. A procese of organising environmental stimuli into some meaningful patterns or wholes.
Perceptual constancy : A tendency to perceive the stimuli in the environment as unchanging, though in reality there may be changes in shape, size or other characteristics.
Peripheral nervous system: Part of nervous system outside the brain and the spinal cord.
Phallic stage: Third stage in the Freud’s theory of psycho-sexual development when the child is strongly interested in the genitals.
Phi-phenomenon: The perceptual illusion of movement caused by flashing a series of stationary lights one after another in succession.
Phobia: Intense and irrational fear of some specific object or situation.
Pitch: The sensed quality of sound resulting from the frequency of the sound waves stimulating the ear.
Pleasure principle: A principle in Freudian theory emphasizing the immediate gratification regardless of the consequences, a function of the id.
Polurization: The condition of a neuron before it fires, when the Positive ions are on the outside and negative ions are on the inside of the cell membrane.
Pones: Wind brain nerve centre that helps with breathing and coordination of activities of both sides of the brain.
Positive reinforcer: A concept in operant conditioning indicating a stimulus whose presentation strengthens the responses leading to its presentation.
Positive transfer: A type of transfer in which one learning helps facilitate the other learning.
Proactive inhibition: The tendency of earlier learning to disrupt the recall of later learning.
Projection: Defence mechanism characterized by attributing one’s own desires and feelings to others.
Proximity: A principle of perceptual organization stating that
nearness or closeness of objects leads the perceiver to perceive them in patterns.
Psychosexual stages: The five stages of psychological development as put by Freud in his personality theory.
Purkinje effect: The shift in relative visibility from long to shorter wave lengths of light under conditions of reduced illumination.
Rationalization. The process of justification of behaviour that is otherwise unjustified by providing rational reasons.
Recall: The process of remembering without the aid of extra cues.
Recessive gene: Gene whose heredity potential is not expressed when it is paired with a dominant gene.
Recognition. The ability to look at several things and select one that has been seen or learned befoue.
Reflex: Involuntary, unlcarned, immediate response to a stimulus.
Reinforcement: The process of strengthening a response with the help of an appropriate stimulus making it more likely to recur.
Retention: Storage of learned material in memory.
Reticular activating system (RAS): Nervous system structure running through the hind brain and mid brain to the hypothalamus responsible for general arousal of the organism.
Ribonucleic acid (RNA); Chemical that translates genetic instructions from DNA into specific cellular processes, such as the synthesis of needed proteins.
Rods: The receptor cells in the retina of the eye responsible for night vision but which do not produce the perception of colour.
Rorschach test: A projective technique consisting of the ten ambiguous symmetrical ink-blots that subjects are asked to interpret.
Saving method: A measure of retention arrived at by determining the difference between the number of trials originally needed to learn the material and the number of trials needed for relearning.
Schedule of Reinforcement: A pattern of taking decision in the way a given response is to be reinforced.
Secondary Sex Characteristics: Bodily changes that occur during puberty specific to the sexes but not necessary for reproduction, for example, facial hair in men, development of breasts in women.
Selective Breeding: The process of mating species for a specific trait for the purpose of studying the inheritability.
Self-actualization: The highest need in the hierarchical structure of needs proposed by Maslow, that drives an individual to discover one’s self and fulfil one’s potential.
Self Concept: The general ideas and feelings that one acquires about himself as unique individual of special significance.
Self-esteem: A positive attitude toward oneself, varying in degree of favour or approval.
Sensory Projection area: Cerebral cortex area where messages from the sense organs register.
Sensory storage: The brief perceptual memory process of storage of sensory input for less than a second.
Serial lists: Any lists that are to be memorized in order.
Set: .A predisposition to respond in a certain way when presented with certain stimuli.
Shaping: A technique in operant conditioning in which reinforcement is used to mould desired behaviour by reinforcing successively close approximations to it.
Short term memory (STM): The type of memory helpful in retaining several items of information for about twenty seconds or so even if one gets no chance to rehearse or repeat them.
Somatotyping: Sheldon’s system of classifying persons into certain body types according to the degree to which their somatic structure {body build) reflects certain physical characteristics.
Source traits: A concept in Cattell’s theory of personality meaning the basic traits serving as the essential structures of the personality.
Species specific behaviour: Behaviour that is characterized of all normal members of a given species.
Sperm: A male reproductive cell produced in the testes.
Spontaneous recovery : The recovery of part of the strength of a conditioned response some time after it has been extinguished.
Stero-types: Beliefs presumed to apply to all members of a given group. .
Stimulus: An occurrence or event that produces some effect on some organism.
Stimulus discrimination: A concept in the theory of conditioning emphasizing that an organism learns to react to differences in stimuli and to distinguish between them.
Stimulus generalization: A concept in the theory of conditioning emphasizing that Once an organism gets conditioned to respond to a specific stimulus, other, similar stimuli bring the same response.
Stimulus variability: Innate performance for change in environmental stimull.
Stroboscopic motion: Apparent motion caused by the successive presentation of separate visual stimuli.
Super ego: A concept in Freud’s psychoanalytic theory related with tnat part of personality which imposes on the individual the restraint and moral precepts of the society.
Surface traits: One of the types of traits defined by Cattell that are close to the surface of the personality; they are more easily changed than source traits e.g. aggressiveness.
Sympathetic division: Division of the autonomic nervous system.
Synapse: Fluid filled space between the axon of one neuron and the receiving dendrite of the next that helps the flow of information through the nervous system.
Taste buds: Organs that receive the chemical stimuli for taste sensation.
Textural Density gradient: A cue to visual depth.
Testosterone : A male hormone responsible for sex-role behaviours.
Thalamus: Egg shaped structures in the fore-brain that function as the relay centre of the brain.
Thyroid gland: Endocrine gland located below the larynx that secretes thyroxin, which controls metabolism.
Timbre: The sensory quality of the sound that characterizes a given source.
Trait: Particular feature of an individual’s personality that seems to stand out and endure over a vide variety of situations.
Transduction: Process by which receptor cells transform physical energy into an impulse that the nervous system can carry
Transference: A concept in psychoanalysis related with the patients’ unconscious transferring of feelings from earlier interpersonal relationships to the analyst.
Variable: Event or condition affecting a particular situation.
Verbal behaviour. The use of spoken or written language in communicating with others.
Vestibular sense. Sense of body balance, position and movement.
Visible spectrum: That part of the light wave spectrum visible to the human eye; the colours we see.
Visual acuity: Ability to distinguish fine details in the field of vision.
Volley theory of pitch perception: Theory that receptors in the ear
respond in volley, with one group responding, then a second, then a third, and so on.
Weber’s Law: The amount of increment in physical stimulus needed to produce a “‘just noticeable difference’’ is proportional to the magnitude of the initial stimulus.
Whole method: The method of memorizing material as a whole without breaking it into parts to be memorized separately.
X-chromosome:. X-shaped sex chromosomes to be found as one in males and two in females.
Y-chromosome: Y-shaped sex chromosomes, found only in males. Zygote: A fertilized egg or ovum.